Cardiac & Vascular Regulation The major physiological mechanisms regulating cardiac and vascular functions in the body are primarily controlled by the cardiovascular system, wh… Read More

A bone scan is a nuclear medicine imaging technique used to diagnose and evaluate various bone conditions and diseases. It provides information about the structure, function, and m… Read More

Autonomic Cholinergic and Adrenergic pathways These pathways differ in terms of their neurotransmitters, receptor subtypes, neurotransmitter synthesis, storage, release, and the specific dru… Read More

Introduction A renal isotope scan, also known as a renal nuclear medicine scan or renal scintigraphy, is a diagnostic imaging test used to evaluate the structure and function of the kidneys… Read More

Action Potential’s Significance Action potential is a crucial concept in neuroscience that plays a fundamental role in neuronal signaling. It refers to the brief electrical event that… Read More

The V/Q (ventilation/perfusion) scan is a nuclear medicine imaging technique used to assess lung function and diagnose conditions such as pulmonary embolism. It involves two components: vent… Read More

Pharmacodynamics refers to the study of how a drug or medication interacts with the body to produce its therapeutic effects. It focuses on understanding the relationship between the concentr… Read More

Pharmacology is the scientific discipline that deals with the study of drugs and their effects on living organisms. It encompasses various branches that focus on different aspects… Read More

Burns have been a part of human history for centuries, and they can occur due to various causes such as flames, scalding liquids, contact with hot surfaces, exposure to chemicals, or even el… Read More

Neonatal sepsis refers to a systemic infection occurring in newborn infants within the first 28 days of life. It is a serious condition that requires prompt diagnosis and treatment. Here… Read More

Neonatal jaundice, also known as neonatal hyperbilirubinemia, refers to the yellowing of a newborn’s skin and eyes due to increased levels of bilirubin in the blood. There are various… Read More

Adrenal Gland Anatomy The adrenal glands are small, triangular-shaped endocrine glands located on top of each kidney. They play a crucial role in the body’s stress response and the… Read More

Malaria Treatment Options Malaria is a life-threatening disease caused by the Plasmodium parasite and transmitted through the bite of infected mosquitoes. The treatment of malaria… Read More

Drug Discovery Process The process of drug discovery and development involves a series of stages that span from the initial discovery of a potential drug to its final approval and… Read More

Electrocardiography (ECG or EKG) is a medical diagnostic procedure that measures and records the electrical activity of the heart. It is a non-invasive and painless test that provides valuab… Read More

Uterine cancer, also known as endometrial cancer, refers to the cancer that develops in the lining of the uterus, called the endometrium. There are several types of uterine cancer, including… Read More

Pregnancy History and Analysis Taking a comprehensive history of a present pregnancy, analyzing the main complaint, and gathering information about past obstetrics and gynecology history is… Read More

Here are the common types of eczema and their main clinical presentations: Atopic Eczema: Clinical Presentation: Atopic eczema, also known as atopic dermatitis, is a chronic and inflammatory… Read More

Sexual dysfunctions are a broad range of conditions characterized by persistent difficulties or disturbances in sexual desire, arousal, or response that cause distress or impairment in a per… Read More

Urinary incontinence refers to the involuntary loss of bladder control, resulting in the unintentional leakage of urine. It is a common condition that can range in severity from occasional s… Read More

Shock is a medical condition characterized by a severe and potentially life-threatening state of inadequate blood flow and oxygen supply to the body’s tissues and organs. It… Read More

Hydrocephalus in Children Hydrocephalus is a condition characterized by the accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) within the brain, leading to increased pressure inside the sku… Read More

Introduction Vaginal discharge refers to the fluid that is naturally produced by the glands in the vagina and cervix. It is a normal physiological process in women and serves to ke… Read More

The management of foreign bodies in the ear, nose, and throat (ENT) is essential due to the potential complications and risks they pose. Foreign bodies can include a wide range of objects th… Read More

The major radiological anatomy of the genitourinary system refers to the structures that can be visualized using radiological imaging techniques. These structures include: Kidneys: Radiologi… Read More

Barium Studies Overview Barium studies, also known as contrast studies, are medical imaging procedures that use a contrast agent called barium to visualize the gastrointestinal (GI) tract… Read More

Morbid obesity is a medical condition characterized by having an excessively high body mass index (BMI) that significantly increases the risk of various health problems. BMI is a measure of… Read More

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is an emergency procedure performed to manually assist in maintaining blood circulation and providing oxygen to the body when a person’s heart ha… Read More

Introduction Anticholinergics are a class of medications that inhibit the action of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter in the central and peripheral nervous systems. Acetylcholine plays a cru… Read More

Mechanism of labor in first and second stage of labor The mechanisms of labor refer to the physiological changes and processes that occur during the first and second stages of labor. Here&rs&hell…Read More

Stages of Labor The four stages of labor refer to the sequential phases a woman goes through during the process of childbirth. These stages mark the progression of labor from the o… Read More

Introduction Hypersensitivity reactions, also known as allergic reactions, occur when the immune system overreacts to a harmless substance in the environment or a foreign substance that ente… Read More

Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is an infection that affects the female reproductive organs. It primarily involves inflammation of the uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries, but it can also… Read More

A headache is a common medical condition characterized by pain or discomfort in the head or upper neck region. It is one of the most prevalent health complaints and can vary in int… Read More

Preterm labor and PPROM (preterm premature rupture of membranes) are two related medical conditions that can occur during pregnancy and may lead to preterm birth. Preterm labor: Pr… Read More

Emergencies in oncology refer to critical medical situations that require immediate intervention and specialized care in patients with cancer. These emergencies may arise as a resu… Read More

Multiple pregnancies refer to pregnancies where more than one fetus develops in the uterus. There are different types of multiple pregnancies, which are classified based on the num… Read More

Crystal arthropathy, also known as crystal deposition disease, refers to a group of disorders characterized by the accumulation of microscopic crystals within the joints. The most common typ… Read More

Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) refers to a condition in which a fetus does not achieve its expected growth potential while still in the womb. It is characterized by the inability of… Read More

In medical terms, pain is defined as an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage. It is a subjective sensation that can vary in… Read More

Prolonged pregnancy, also known as post-term or overdue pregnancy, refers to a condition in which a pregnancy extends beyond the normal gestational period, which is considered to b… Read More

A miscarriage, also known as a spontaneous abortion, is the loss of a pregnancy before the fetus is able to survive independently outside the womb. It typically occurs during the f… Read More

Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) is a chronic liver disease characterized by immune-mediated inflammation and damage to the liver cells (hepatocytes). It is considered an autoimmune diso… Read More

Postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) refers to excessive bleeding following childbirth. It is a significant cause of maternal morbidity and mortality worldwide. There are two main classific… Read More

Pneumonia vs Pneumonitis Pneumonia and pneumonitis are both conditions that affect the lungs, but they have distinct definitions and characteristics. Pneumonia Pneumonia is an infection that… Read More

Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It primarily affects the lungs but can also affect other parts of the body, such as t… Read More

Coagulation disorders in pregnancy refer to abnormalities in the blood clotting process that occur during pregnancy. During pregnancy, the body undergoes significant physiological… Read More

Acute coronary syndrome (ACS) is a term used to describe a group of conditions that result from a sudden reduction or blockage of blood flow to the heart muscle. It is typically ca… Read More

Leiomyoma, also known as a uterine fibroid, is a benign (non-cancerous) tumor that arises from the smooth muscle cells of the uterus. It is one of the most common types of tumors f… Read More

Genital prolapse refers to the descent or sagging of pelvic organs such as the uterus, bladder, or rectum into the vaginal canal. While the exact cause of genital prolapse is often multifact… Read More

Malpresentation refers to an abnormal positioning or placement of the fetus during pregnancy, particularly during labor and delivery. Normally, a fetus is expected to be in a head-down posit… Read More

Pathophysiology of pneumothorax and its management Pneumothorax refers to the presence of air in the pleural space, the space between the lungs and the chest wall. This air accumulation can… Read More

Asthma is a chronic respiratory condition characterized by inflammation and narrowing of the airways, leading to recurrent episodes of wheezing, coughing, shortness of breath, and… Read More

Hypotonia, also known as low muscle tone, is a condition characterized by reduced muscle strength and poor muscle tone. It can affect children and adults and may be caused by various factors… Read More

A cataract is a medical condition characterized by the clouding of the lens in the eye, leading to a decrease in vision. The lens, located behind the iris, plays a crucial role in focusing l… Read More

Potassium Homeostasis Physiology Electrolytes are electrically charged ions that play a crucial role in various physiological processes within the human body. They help maintain pr… Read More

Antiviral agents are a class of medications used to treat viral infections. They work by targeting specific components of the viral life cycle, either inhibiting viral replication or prevent… Read More

Introduction Antifungal agents, also known as antifungals, are medications used to treat and prevent fungal infections. Fungal infections can occur on the skin, nails, hair, or ins… Read More

Chemotherapy refers to the use of drugs to treat various types of cancer and other medical conditions. These drugs, known as chemotherapeutic agents, work by interfering with the cell div… Read More

The most common congenital malformation of the central nervous system (CNS) is neural tube defects (NTDs). NTDs occur due to incomplete closure of the neural tube during embryonic… Read More

Muscles of the thigh The thigh is composed of numerous muscles that are responsible for various movements and functions. Here is a list of the major muscles of the thigh: Quadriceps Femoris… Read More

Introduction Analgesia and anesthesia are both medical terms used to describe the suppression or relief of pain. While they are related concepts, they have distinct meanings and applications… Read More

Introduction Antepartum hemorrhage (APH) refers to the occurrence of bleeding from the birth canal after the 20th week of pregnancy and before the birth of the baby. It is also known as thir… Read More

Breast Anatomy Basics The breast is a glandular organ located on the front of the chest in both males and females, although it is more developed in females. It consists of specialized struct… Read More

Meningitis Pathogens by Age Acute meningitis is an inflammation of the protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord, usually caused by an infection. The pathogens causin… Read More

Drug poisoning refers to the harmful or toxic effects that occur when an individual takes or is exposed to a substance in excessive amounts or in a manner that is not intended. It typically… Read More

Plastic surgery is a medical specialty that involves the restoration, reconstruction, or alteration of the human body. Plastic surgeons utilize a combination of surgical techniques… Read More

Perioperative management refers to the comprehensive care and coordination provided to a patient before, during, and after a surgical procedure. It encompasses a range of activitie… Read More

Introduction Fatty acid oxidation, also known as beta-oxidation, is the metabolic process by which fatty acids are broken down in cells to produce energy. It is a crucial pathway f… Read More

Globular proteins are a type of protein with a characteristic three-dimensional structure that is compact and roughly spherical in shape. They play crucial roles in various biological proces… Read More

Endocrinology is a branch of medicine and biology that deals with the study of hormones and their role in the regulation of various bodily functions. Hormones are chemical messengers produce… Read More

Introduction Valvular heart disease refers to any condition that affects the valves of the heart. The heart has four valves: the mitral valve, tricuspid valve, aortic valve, and pu… Read More

Bright field microscopy is a widely used technique in which organisms or cells are stained to enhance their visibility and improve contrast for observation under a microscope. The… Read More

Viral classification and characteristics properties Viral classification is the process of organizing viruses into different groups based on their shared characteristics and properties… Read More

Introduction Neuroradiology is a medical specialty that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of diseases and conditions of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), hea… Read More

Hepatitis refers to the inflammation of the liver, which can be caused by various factors such as viral infections, alcohol consumption, autoimmune diseases, and certain medications or toxin… Read More

Introduction Steroidogenesis is the process by which steroids are synthesized in the body. Steroids are a class of organic compounds that include hormones such as cortisol, estrogen, and tes… Read More

Vasculitis refers to a group of disorders characterized by inflammation of blood vessels, resulting in damage to the vessel walls. This inflammation can affect blood vessels of var… Read More

Ovarian cancer is a type of cancer that originates in the ovaries, which are the reproductive organs in females responsible for producing eggs and female hormones. Ovarian cancer occurs when… Read More

Vision Basics Refraction: Refraction refers to the bending of light as it passes from one medium to another. When light travels through different substances, such as air, water, or… Read More

Posttranslational modifications of proteins Posttranslational modifications (PTMs) are covalent modifications that occur on proteins after translation, altering their structure, stability, l… Read More

Hemoptysis is a medical term used to describe the coughing up of blood that originates from the respiratory tract, specifically the lungs and airways. It is often a symptom of an u… Read More

Introduction Thrombocytopenia is a medical condition characterized by a low platelet count in the blood. Platelets are small, colorless cell fragments that play a crucial role in blood clott… Read More

Transplantation surgery, also known as organ transplantation, is a medical procedure in which a diseased or damaged organ is replaced with a healthy organ from a donor. The purpose of transp… Read More

Arthritis is a term used to describe a group of diseases that primarily affect the joints in the body. It refers to inflammation and swelling of one or more joints, leading to pain… Read More

Liver cirrhosis is a chronic and progressive condition characterized by the irreversible scarring and fibrosis of the liver tissue. This scarring disrupts the normal structure and… Read More

Dermatology is the medical specialty that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of diseases and disorders of the skin, hair, nails, and mucous membranes. Dermatologists are physic… Read More

Bone Structure: Collagen & Hydroxyapatite Bone tissue is a complex and dynamic connective tissue that provides structural support, protection, and facilitates mineral homeostasis in the… Read More

Blood Cell Identification Criteria When identifying blood cells, several criteria are considered to distinguish different types of cells. Here are the common review criteria used for identif… Read More

Introduction Oncological emergencies refer to critical situations that arise in individuals with cancer, which require immediate medical attention and intervention. These emergencies can occ… Read More

Purine Synthesis Biochemical Steps Purine synthesis is a biochemical pathway responsible for the de novo synthesis of purine nucleotides, which are essential components of DNA, RNA, and ATP… Read More

Pyrimidine Synthesis Steps Pyrimidine synthesis is a complex biochemical process that occurs in the body to produce pyrimidine nucleotides, which are essential components of DNA, R… Read More

Common Pediatric Orthopedic Conditions Pediatric orthopedics is a specialized branch of medicine that focuses on the diagnosis, treatment, and management of musculoskeletal conditi… Read More

Uveitis is a medical condition characterized by inflammation of the uvea, the middle layer of the eye. The uvea consists of the iris, ciliary body, and choroid, which are responsib… Read More

Contrast media, also known as contrast agents or contrast dyes, are substances used in medical imaging procedures to enhance the visibility of certain tissues, organs, or blood vessels. They… Read More

Introduction An intestinal stoma is a surgical opening created on the abdominal wall that connects a part of the intestine to the outside of the body. It is usually performed when… Read More

Menorrhagia is a medical term used to describe abnormally heavy or prolonged menstrual bleeding in women. It refers to a condition in which a woman experiences excessive or prolonged bleedin… Read More

Pathophysiology of Pleural Effusion Pleural effusion refers to the abnormal accumulation of fluid in the pleural space, which is the space between the two layers of the pleura (the… Read More

In Vitro vs In Vivo Bacterial Growth The growth of bacteria can occur in two primary settings: in vitro and in vivo. In vitro growth refers to the cultivation of bacteria in a controlled lab… Read More

An electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) is a diagnostic tool used to measure the electrical activity of the heart. It provides valuable information about the heart’s rhythm, rate… Read More