Written for TimeTravelRome by Michel Gybels

Description of Mithraeums –  Michel Gybels & TimeTavelRome

Who was Mithras and why was this outsider in the pantheon of gods so widely venerated throughout the Roman Empire? In this article, we examine this mystery cult, which initially became popular among the legionnaires during the Roman Imperial period and how the cult forged close alliances of loyalty and brotherhood among its members.

Roman Worship of Gods

Roman worship of gods consisted of a mutual agreement between the celebrant and his or her chosen god. Offerings to the gods were made according to the do ut des principle, in other words, I give you something in the expectation that I will get something from you in return. For example, an offering of food to a god automatically brought with it the worshipper’s demand for health, prosperity and happiness. With this in mind, the construction of a temple guaranteed positive and benevolent feelings of the god, to whom the temple was dedicated, towards his worshippers. In order to ensure the flourishing of the relationship between the people and the gods, the population inside and outside Rome was also prepared to embrace any foreign deity insofar as that god could contribute to the welfare of the city, the military garrisons, the families living there and even individuals. Each section of society had specific favoured gods who could help them in case of need. Throughout the Roman Empire the people worshipped a pantheon of gods imported from other cultures. However, despite their ‘foreign’ origins, these gods were considered an essential part of the cult of the gods in the cities of the empire and were worshipped in the temples erected for them in the way that was customary for the ‘indigenous’ cult.

The Origin of Mithraism

Recent researchers, including Roger Beck, assume that the mystery cult was created in Rome by someone who had knowledge of both Greek and Oriental religion and they also assume that several principles of the religion originate from Hellenistic kingdoms where Mithras was identified with the Greek sun god Helios, one of the deities of the syncretic Graeco-Iranian royal cult founded by Antiochus I, king of the small but prosperous buffer state of Commagene in the middle of the first century BC.

The German historian Reinhold Merkelbach, on the other hand, suggests that the cult of Mithras in Rome was created by certain persons from an eastern province or border state of the Roman Empire who were clearly familiar with the Iranian myths, several details of which were woven into new degrees of initiation, and that these persons had to be of Greek origin because elements of Greek Platonism were simultaneously woven into the cult. At the same time, he suggests that the myths were probably created within the milieu of the imperial bureaucracy and were exclusive to its members.

Archaeological research also shows that only three Mithraea were discovered in Roman Syria, in contrast to the more widespread cult sites in the west. According to archaeologist Lewis Hopfe, this is clear evidence that Roman Mithraism had its epicentre in Rome, and that the fully developed religion was spread towards Roman Syria only later by soldiers or traders from Rome.

The first significant expansion of Mithraism in the empire occurred quite rapidly during the reign of Antoninus Pius and under Marcus Aurelius. The cult reached its popular height during the second and third centuries of our era, the period when the religion of Sol Invictus also became part of the state religion. In this period a certain Pallas devoted a monograph to Mithras and later a certain Eboulus wrote his History of Mithras. Both works have been lost.

According to the fourth-century Historia Augusta, Emperor Commodus also took part in the mystery cult, although Mithraism never became part of the state religion.

A Mystery Cult for the Legion Soldiers

The god chosen by the Roman legionaries was Mithras. The London Mithraeum, located in Wallbrook in the financial heart of the city, was rediscovered in 1954 and is now open for visits. The original construction of the temple was a gift to the god and the followers of the Mithras cult from Ulpius Silvanus, a retired Roman officer from the third century, and remained in use for over 60 years. The remains of the temple, with numerous well-preserved statues, show that Mithras was an important deity for those who lived in what was then Londinium.

It was not easy to become a follower of the Mithras cult. You had to agree to follow a mystery cult anyway, which meant that the ways of worship were shielded from outsiders who were not initiated. To become a full member of the temple you had to go through seven initiation rites in the form of tests of knowledge. A potential follower also always had to be male. The final initiation baptism consisted of bull’s blood.

Membership of the mystery cult consisted of a well-defined hierarchy divided into degrees: the first degree was Corax or Raven. Ravens appear in Greco-Roman mythology and were traditionally messengers of the gods in various religions, including Mithraism. That rank was followed by that of Nymphus or the groom; Miles, the soldier; Leo, the lion (a virile motif within the hierarchy of soldiers); Perses, the Persian and Heliodromus, the messenger of the Sun. The highest position one could attain was that of Father.

The Mithraeum of Felicissimus in Ostia Antica (Reg. V, IX), Italy, contains a floor mosaic dating from the first century of our era, consisting of seven panels, one for each level of initiation. Each panel links the initiate to a specific god and a series of actions that had to be performed as part of a secret ritual.

The first panel, near the entrance to the entrance hall, is for the degree of the Corax. That panel shows a raven, a small bowl and a caduceus, a magic wand wrapped in a serpent like the one worn by the god Mercury. The Nymphus wears a crown in the shape of the rising moon, which links him to Venus, as well as a lamp. Miles wears a military helmet, which links him to the god of war Mars, a lance and a bag.

Leo is depicted with a thunderbolt, the crest of Jupiter, a spade and a sistrum, a kind of Egyptian musical ratchet.

Perses has a rising moon, an Asiatic sword and a scythe.

Heliodromus wears a crown with ribbons, a whip and a burning torch.

Finally, at the end of the cult space, there is the mosaic of the Pater with a patera or small bowl for making offerings to the god, a magic wand for guiding the initiates, a Phrygian cap and a sickle.

The initiates were collectively known as the syndexiol, which translates as those united by the handshake. The idea behind it is that that handshake seals the link between the individual and the god and his followers.

A Unique Male Alliance

This unique male alliance can be considered an extremely positive feature of the Mithras cult. It was built around the existing feelings of professional military loyalty and promoted an ideal of brotherhood between individual members and their military colleagues of equal rank. More or less the same thing we see in the Middle Ages in various military religious orders such as the Knights Templar, the Knights of St John, the Teutonic Order, the Order of Malta, etc.

By making entry to the covenant difficult and the various degrees of initiation, which raised the status of its members, it was a great honour for many to be allowed to participate in the mystery cult, which also raised their social status in society.

Remains of the Brocolitia Mithraeum at Carrawburgh on Hadrian’s Wall in northern England show that a well was built in the centre of the main building, which may have been used for the initiation of potential new members of the cult. The neophyte descended into this well where he “cast off” his former life and then “resurrected” as an initiate.

Depictions of Mithras travelled with the Roman troops throughout the empire from Germany to Syria. In England alone there are three sanctuaries dedicated to Mithras on Hadrian’s Wall, namely the earlier mentioned mithraeum of Brocolitia (Carrawburgh), that of Borcovicium (Housesteads) and that of Vindobala (Rudchester). In the temples of Vindobala and Brocolitia, inscriptions in the walls show the generosity of gifts to the deity by various commanders of the regiment.

As far as Rome is concerned, the emperors Diocletian and Lucius are also known as members of the Mithras cult. This clearly indicates that high-ranking persons also joined the cult and, moreover, they considered it expedient to invest in images of Mithras (statues, frescoes, etc.) to embellish the interior of the temples. Six mithraea in England were found in military zones; the example of Londinium is therefore the only complex so far found in a civilian environment.

The Images of Mithras

There are numerous depictions of Mithras that have survived in Roman temples. Many show the so-called tauroctony or killing of the bull. The various elements of such tauroctony, whether depicted in stone reliefs or in frescoes, always focus on the same act whereby Mithras overpowers the bull and drives a dagger into its neck. In this heroic act, he is never alone but is always accompanied by his dog, who is often depicted on the back of the bull and at the same time biting the animal’s throat. At the same time, we also see a scorpion sticking its claws into the bull’s testicles. These two motifs are linked to the Persian god Arimanius, the bringer of death. He was the gatekeeper between the earth and the underworld and prevented the dead from gaining access to Mithras. The dog and the scorpion, in turn, ensured the quick death of the bull. In some versions, ears of corn or vines grew from the bull’s wounds. In a hymn to Mithras, found on the walls of a temple in Rome, we read among other things “you have redeemed us by shedding eternal blood”.

The sacrifice of the bull can therefore be seen as an act of life renewal carried out so that society would survive the winter. Remnants of paint on wall paintings of the scene have shown that the bull was white. This leads to the claim that Mithras was the sun or the representative of Sol Invictus, the sun god, who was responsible for the murder of the ever-renewing moon that took the form of a bull. During the sacrifice, the bull’s head is always turned to the right in all the images, but whether this is significant cannot be determined. Mithras himself looks at the bull and sometimes turns his gaze away over his shoulder to an image of the sun with which he seeks the approval of the sun god Sol for his act. Between Sol and Mithras also moves a raven, which can be seen as the deliverer of a message to both. The Roman version of Mithras is always a young clean-shaven man wearing a Phrygian cap, the Persian symbol of freedom, which confirms that he was born a free man and not a slave. The priest in the Mithras cult wore the same hat to emphasise his status as senior or eldest. Mithras also always wears a cape that fans out behind him. All these images were always placed or painted at the far end of the worship space in the sanctuary.

The Anatomy of a Tauroctomy

To clarify the preceding presentation visually, here is a picture of a tauroctony, a fresco from the mithraeum of Santa Maria Capua Vetere in Italy that dates from the second century of our era.  This work gives a good idea of the scenes with their various symbols and elements.

Mithraism and Christianity

It is believed that Mithras was born from a rock, a process known as petrogenesis. His birth date was set for 25 December, around the time of the traditional celebration of the winter solstice. On the 6th January following his birth, he was visited by wise men to begin his education. The day of his worship is Sunday. Mithras lived a celibate life and was primarily concerned with hunting and battle tactics rather than family or amorous affairs, and he was also the god of light. One of his altars, at Brocolitia (Carrawburgh), shows a half figure of him with a round crown or halo on his head.

When we put all this information together, it is not difficult to understand why academics made numerous links with the Christian religion. It was even postulated that Christianity was responsible for the end of Mithraism. Unlike Mithraism, which was open only to male adepts, Christianity also welcomed women for the shared experience of the rite of celebrating the bread and wine, which could explain its success and certainly bring about the disappearance of the Mithras cult.

The Archaeological Evidence for Mithraism

The archaeological evidence for Mithraism is mainly determined by the many depictions of Mithras found in third-century Europe. Mithraea, the temples where Mithras was worshipped and commemorated, were always rather small buildings, probably due to the exclusivity of the religion which was only for initiates. They were only big enough to accommodate a maximum of ten to fifteen men per worship. One of the few written references to Mithras can be found in the work of Porphyrius (234-305), a Neo-Platonic philosopher who was born in Tyre (present-day Lebanon). In his work On the Cave of the Nymphs he states that another name for the initiates of the cult was Persian, thus referring to the origin of Mithras, the creator and father of all things, who, according to him, was born in a cave in the mountains on the outskirts of Persia. As a result of this birthplace, it is not surprising to note that the majority of the mithraea are located in underground chambers, often with roughly hewn sections reminiscent of the rocky formations of a cave. Public events were completely forbidden in these temples, not only because of the lack of space but certainly because of the fact that only initiates of the cult were allowed to enter the sacred spaces. Even processions or offerings outside the temple were strictly reserved for the initiates and were always shielded from the general public. In short, everything happened behind closed doors. It is known that at regular intervals of the year celebrations were also organised within the Mithraic calendar.

The centre of the Mithraeum is always rectangular with a row of benches on each side. During feasts, the participants at those benches would line up for the banquet which was organised for a limited number of pre-selected people. The lowest in rank, the corvus, was the one who had to serve. In the mithraeum of Doura-Europos in present-day Syria, graffiti have been found on the walls of the temple giving an indication of the expenses of feasts, with an indication of the products used such as wine, meat and the famous garum or fish sauce to flavour the meals.

From rubbish found in a pit of the Mithraeum in Flemish Tienen, where troops were stationed, it can be deduced that chicken, lamb, pig and wild boar were also on the menu. Most of these feasts took place in June around the summer solstice. In the mithraeum of Lentia in Austria, mainly fruit pits were found. From this we can deduce that the festivals there took place during the harvest season, i.e. in June, July or August. The initiates most likely prepared their own food, as evidenced by the remains of a kitchen found in the mithraeum of Brocolitia on Hadrian’s Wall.

The cult of Mithras therefore created a unique bond between the Roman soldiers with an emphasis on like-mindedness and comradeship in places that were sometimes far from home. Throughout the Roman Empire, members of this mystery cult came together to live and share the religious experience within their community of initiates. The popularity of the cult lived on for many years until it died out in the late fourth and early fifth centuries of our era.

There is indeed no evidence for a possible continuation of the Mithras cult in the course of the fifth century. The cult therefore disappeared earlier than that of the goddess Isis. That goddess was still known in the Middle Ages as a pagan deity while Mithras was already forgotten in late antiquity.

The Archaeological Heritage

Over the years, a lot of archaeological research has been done on mithraea and several of these cult sites have been found, restored and opened to the public. Here is an overview of some sites related to the Mithras cult:

GREAT BRITAIN

• Londinium (London) Mithraeum

The temple of Mithras was built around AD 240. It would have originally been located on the east bank of the River Walbrook. It measured 18 x 8 meters and was constucted in ragstone, Roman brick

and tile. It was rendered with a smooth plaster which was likely painted. The floor was made of timber, over beaten earth and gravel, with stone stairs. Entrance was through a narthex and via stairs which led down to a central nave and then up to an apse at the rear which contained the altar. Two rows of seven columns created aisles along each side of the nave. A timber-lined water vessel was located in the southwest corner. The temple was found during construction of Bucklersbury House in 1954. Initial excavations found fine quality, 3rd century Carrara marble statues of Minerva, Mithras, Serapis, Bacchus and Mercury, as well as courser local clay religious figurines. To allow continued construction on the site in the 1950-1960s, the entire temple was relocated by 100 metres and installed in Temple Court along Queen Victoria Street. Following demolition of Bucklersbury House in 2010 the temple was returned close to its original location. Excavations in 2010 and 2014, led by Museum of London Archaeology, recovered over 14,000 artefacts from the site, including tools, pewter vessls, footwear, a large number of ancient Roman writing-tablets

The temple has been reconstructed 7 metres below street level as part of an archaeological exhibition within the new Bloomberg building. In order to preserve walls of the original temple which have not been excavated, the reconstructed temple is about 12 metres west of its original location. The temple as displayed reflects the first building phase dating to AD 240 prior to later Roman modification. The reconstruction uses the original stone and brick, however modern timber, lime mortar, and render have been used based on samples of the original Roman materials. A number of artefacts are also on display here and in the Museum of London. Additional information on the website www.londonmithraeum.com

• Mithraea on Hadrian’s Wall – Northern England

At Hadrian’s Wall in northern England, remains of three different mithraea were also found. Detailed information is available on the English Heritage website.

GERMANY

• Riegel am Kaiserstuhl

A rather modest mithraeum temple was discovered here in the twentieth century. Riegel am Kasierstuhl was the site of a Roman garrison in antiquity, with the site occupied the junction between two important routes. Considering this military presence, it is perhaps unsurprising that a mithraeum was built here; the cult, much of which still remains unknown, appears to have been particularly popular with the Roman army.

The mithraeum was built in the late second century AD, with a timber frame atop sandstone foundations. The tauroctony relief scene typical of a Mithraeum has been lost, but an altar of red sandstone was discovered, bearing an inscription to DEUS INVICTUS, the “invincible god”.

Based on archaeological evidence, the site was evidently not destroyed but rather abandoned. This itself is quite significant, as many of these temples were reused by later Christian worshippers. In Reigel itself, one can visit the site of the mithraeum, where the foundations of the temple are still in place and clearly marked out. A replica of the altar is also positioned here. Unfortunately, the tell-tale mark of a Mithraeum, the tauroctony relief showing Mithras (in distinctive pointed Phrygian cap) slaying the bull has been lost.

The small artefacts recovered from the site, including the original red sandstone altar, recovered from here are now displayed in the Archäologisches Museum Colombischlössle in Freiburg im Breisgau.

• Mithraeum in Neustadt an der Weinstraße

The temple of Mithras in Neustadt was, according to an inscription found here, constructed in AD 325, making it possibly the last Mithraeum to be erected anywhere in the Roman world. Ultimately, it was largely destroyed when replaced by a Christian church.There is little to see at the site itself, apart from a replica of a Mithras cult relief, but important relics recovered from the temple, including an altar, are now preserved in the Historical Museum of the Palatinate in Speyer.

• Mithraeum in Königsbrunn

Various Roman structures have been identified in the Bavarian town of Königsbrunn, including a Mithraeum that was originally part of a rustic villa complex. It appears to have been made largely of wood and to have had painted walls. The foundations of the structure have survived and are now protected from the elements in their own building. On one of the walls is a Mithras stone recovered in the sixteenth century from a cave in the South of Tyrol. Nearby, stones laid on the ground indicate the layout of a public bath. Smaller finds from these sites and others in the region can be seen in the local archaeological museum in Königsbrunn.

• Col Aug. Treverorum (Trier) Mithraeum

The cult temple to Mithras was built within the Sanctuary of Altbachtal in the 4th century. The Mithraeum was built into the basement of a private home of an elite cult initiate, Martius Martialis, who held the rank of pater. The site was excavated between 1926 and 1934. Excavators found a large number of terracotta and stone votives dating to the 4th century. In particular, a famous stone relief depicting Mithras’s rock-birth was found at the site in 1928. It was found in-situ at the west end of the Mithraeum between two limestone altars and served as the main cult image for the temple. The relief measures 94 x 50 cm with a thickness of 15cm. It shows two temple columns supporting a tympanum. In the centre of the columns, Mithras is shown being born from the rock and surrounded by the four winds. He carries a globe and a circle showing the six signs of the zodiac. Looking on are Sol, Luna, a lion, raven, serpent, and a dog. The stone altars are inscribed with dedications by Martius Martialis.

There are no visible remains of the