بورتريه الدوق أندريـا غـريتـي للفنان الايطـالي تيتـيـان، 1548
Titian, Portrait of Doge Andrea Gritti, 1548
يعتبر اندريا غريتي أشهر وأهمّ دوق حَكَمَ فينيسيا خلال القرن السادس عشر.
وقد انتخب لهذا المنصب بعد أن تدرّج في عدة وظائف قيادية في المجالين السياسي والعسكري.
واشتهر غريتي بشخصيّته الصارمة، كما ُعرف عنه احتفاؤه بالفنون طوال السنوات الخمس عشرة التي شغل فيها المنصب إلى أن توفي في العام 1538م.
المعروف أن منصب الدوق كان محطّة أو مرحلة من مراحل التطوّر السياسي الذي شهدته أوربّا وامتدّ لحوالي ألف عام. وقد جرت العادة أن يُنتخب شاغل المنصب من إحدى العائلات الارستقراطية. وكان الدوق يتولى مهامّ قائد الجيش وكبير القضاة. ومن الأمور المألوفة أن يمتدّ حكم الدوق مدى الحياة، وكثيرا ما كان يعهد لابنه أو أحد أقاربه بخلافته. لكنْ تمّ إلغاء هذا التقليد بتأسيس مجلس استشاري أعلى مرتبط بالإمبراطور وموكّل بمهمّة اختيار الشخص الأصلح لشغل المنصب بعيدا عن نفوذ العائلات التقليدية.
رسم تيشيان هذا البورتريه بعد مرور عشر سنوات على وفاة الدوق غريتي. ويظهر أن ذلك كان بطلب من عائلته التي أرادت من وراء ذلك تكريمه وتخليد ذكراه.
في البورتريه يبدو الدوق مرتديا ثوبا مطرّزا وقبّعة مخروطية الشكل وقد وقف بطريقة تشي بالعظمة والقوّة والثقة الكبيرة بالنفس.
فالنظرات تبدو صارمة بينما تطبق يده اليمنى على طرف عباءته وهو يخطو إلى الأمام كما لو انه في موكب جماهيري أو احتفالي مهيب.
ومن الواضح أن كلّ ما في هذه اللوحة يوحي بالعظمة والفخامة والحضور القويّ لصاحبها. وما يميّزها بشكل خاصّ الطريقة البارعة التي استخدمها تيتيان في إبراز جمال وأناقة الملابس، من العباءة الحمراء إلى الأزرار الضخمة المذهّبة والخاتم الأرجواني الذي يزيّن اليد اليمنى إلى الفراء الأبيض على الأطراف والحواشي.
هناك أيضا إبراز الرسّام الملامح القاسية للرجل، فالفم مطبق بصرامة والملامح متجهّمة والأنف مدبّب والنظرات مترصّدة.
في تلك الفترة ازداد اهتمام الدوقات برسم أنفسهم. وكانت غايتهم من ذلك تمجيد سلالاتهم وعائلاتهم والتأكيد على شرعيّتهم ومكانتهم في أعين الرعيّة بالإضافة إلى الرغبة في إبراز طبيعة ثقافة البلاط. وأحيانا كانوا يفعلون ذلك بدافع الدعاية السياسية البحتة وللتباهي على أقرانهم من الأمراء والنبلاء الأوربيين.
ويقال إن تيشيان اعتمد في رسم هذا البورتريه على كاتب سيرة حياة اندريا غريتي الذي يذكر أن الرجل كان متعطّشا للسلطة بطبيعته وقد مارس سلطاته الوظيفية بشكل مطلق حتى آخر يوم في حياته. ولم يكن يتسامح مع من يحاول التعدّي على سلطاته واختصاصاته. كما ُُعرف عنه أيضا صرامته مع كلّ من يسيء استخدام سلطاته من نوّابه ومستشاريه.
وفي أوقات تبسّطه كان الدوق يتّصف بشي من الودّ والألفة، لكنه لم يكن يتردّد في إثارة الخوف في نفوس من حوله متى حاول أحد استفزازه أو إغضابه. كما اشتهر أيضا بشغفه بالأشياء القديمة واحتفائه بالفنون ورعايته للآداب وفنّ العمارة. وكثيرا ما كان يضمّن ُخطبَه وقراراته أقوالا لأرسطو وغيره من الفلاسفة.
من جهة أخرى، كان غريتي يؤمن بأن تحقيق السلام يقتضي البعد عن الصراعات. لكنّ هذا لا يتأتّى إلا بجيش قويّ وديبلوماسية واعية تحافظ على بقاء الجمهورية بعيدا عن صراعات وحروب القوى الكبرى.
في ذلك الوقت كان من الأمور المتعارف عليها أن تخضع ثروة الدوق بعد وفاته للتدقيق والتمحيص للتأكّد من انه لم يستغلّ منصبه للإثراء غير المشروع.
وبنهاية القرن الثامن عشر، تمّ إلغاء منصب الدوق رسميّا في فينيسيا بعد أن احتلّ نابليون المدينة وضمّها إلى امبراطوريّته. وكان ذلك الحدث مؤذنا بطيّ صفحة مهمّة من تاريخ نظم الحكم الأوربّية اتّسمت بسيطرة الإقطاع والأسر البورجوازية على مقاليد الحياة العامّة.
أما تيشيان (أو تيزيان أو تيتيان كما ينطق اسمه أحيانا) فيعتبر أحد أعظم رسّامي عصر النهضة الايطالي، كما أن أثره كان كبيرا في زمانه وفي الأجيال العديدة من الرسّامين الذين جاءوا بعده.
وقد أتمّ هذا البورتريه وهو في أوج شعبيّته ونضجه الفنّي. وربّما لا يداني بورتريه الدوق غريتي من حيث الشهرة والقيمة الفنية من آثار تلك الحقبة سوى بورتريه الدوق ليوناردو لوردان لزميله ومواطنه جيوفاني بيلليني.
توفي تيشيان بالطاعون في فينيسيا عام 1576 عن عمر يناهز التسعين. وفي بداية هذا الشهر، أي فبراير 2009، بيعت لوحته دايانا و آكتيون في مزاد بلندن بأكثر من سبعين مليون دولار أمريكي.
Tiziano Vecelli or Tiziano Vecellio (pronounced [titˈtsjaːno veˈtʃɛlljo]; c. 1488/1490 – 27 August 1576), known in English as Titian /ˈtɪʃən/, was an Italian painter, the most important member of the 16th-century Venetian school. He was born in Pieve di Cadore, near Belluno, then in the Republic of Venice). During his lifetime he was often called da Cadore, taken from the place of his birth.
Recognized by his contemporaries as "The Sun Amidst Small Stars" (recalling the famous final line of Dante's Paradiso), Titian was one of the most versatile of Italian painters, equally adept with portraits, landscape backgrounds, and mythological and religious subjects. His painting methods, particularly in the application and use of colour, would exercise a profound influence not only on painters of the late Italian Renaissance, but on future generations of Western art.
His career was successful from the start, and he became sought after by patrons, initially from Venice and its possessions, then joined by the north Italian princes, and finally the Habsburgs and papacy. Along with Giorgione, he is considered a founder of the Venetian School of Italian Renaissance painting.
During the course of his long life, Titian's artistic manner changed drastically, but he retained a lifelong interest in colour. Although his mature works may not contain the vivid, luminous tints of his early pieces, their loose brushwork and subtlety of tone were without precedent in the history of Western painting.
The exact date of Titian's birth is uncertain. When he was an old man he claimed in a letter to Philip II, King of Spain, to have been born in 1474, but this seems most unlikely. Other writers contemporary to his old age give figures that would equate to birthdates between 1473 and after 1482. Most modern scholars believe a date between 1488 and 1490 is more likely, though his age at death being 99 had been accepted into the 20th century.
He was the son of Gregorio Vecelli and his wife Lucia, of whom little is known. Gregorio was superintendent of the castle of Pieve di Cadore and managed local mines for their owners. Gregorio was also a distinguished councilor and soldier. Many relatives, including Titian's grandfather, were notaries, and the family were well-established in the area, which was ruled by Venice.
At the age of about ten to twelve he and his brother Francesco (who perhaps followed later) were sent to an uncle in Venice to find an apprenticeship with a painter. The minor painter Sebastian Zuccato, whose sons became well-known mosaicists, and who may have been a family friend, arranged for the brothers to enter the studio of the elderly Gentile Bellini, from which they later transferred to that of his brother Giovanni Bellini. At that time the Bellinis, especially Giovanni, were the leading artists in the city. There Titian found a group of young men about his own age, among them Giovanni Palma da Serinalta, Lorenzo Lotto, Sebastiano Luciani, and Giorgio da Castelfranco, nicknamed Giorgione. Francesco Vecellio, Titian's older brother, later became a painter of some note in Venice.
A fresco of Hercules on the Morosini Palace is said to have been one of Titian's earliest works. Others were the Bellini-esque so-called Gypsy Madonna in Vienna, and the Visitation of Mary and Elizabeth (from the convent of S. Andrea), now in the Accademia, Venice.
A Man with a Quilted Sleeve is an early portrait, painted around 1509 and described by Giorgio Vasari in 1568. Scholars long believed it depicted Ludovico Ariosto, but now think it is of Gerolamo Barbarigo. Rembrandt borrowed the composition for his self-portraits.
Titian joined Giorgione as an assistant, but many contemporary critics already found his work more impressive—for example in exterior frescoes (now almost totally destroyed) that they did for the Fondaco dei Tedeschi (state-warehouse for the German merchants). Their relationship evidently contained a significant element of rivalry. Distinguishing between their work at this period remains a subject of scholarly controversy. A substantial number of attributions have moved from Giorgione to Titian in the 20th century, with little traffic the other way. One of the earliest known Titian works, Christ Carrying the Cross in the Scuola Grande di San Rocco, depicting the Ecce Homo scene, was long regarded as by Giorgione.
The two young masters were likewise recognized as the leaders of their new school of arte moderna, which is characterized by paintings made more flexible, freed from symmetry and the remnants of hieratic conventions still found in the works of Giovanni Bellini.
In 1507–1508 Giorgione was commissioned by the state to create frescoes on the re-erected Fondaco dei Tedeschi. Titian and Morto da Feltre worked along with him, and some fragments of paintings remain, probably by Giorgione. Some of their work is known, in part, through the engravings of Fontana. After Giorgione's early death in 1510, Titian continued to paint Giorgionesque subjects for some time, though his style developed its own features, including bold and expressive brushwork.
Salome with the Head of John the Baptist c. 1515, (Galleria Doria Pamphilj, Rome), or Judith; this religious work also functions as an idealized portrait of a beauty, a genre developed by Titian, supposedly often using Venetian courtesans as models.
Titian's talent in fresco is shown in those he painted in 1511 at Padua in the Carmelite church and in the Scuola del Santo, some of which have been preserved, among them the Meeting at the Golden Gate, and three scenes (Miracoli di sant'Antonio) from the life of St. Anthony of Padua, The Miracle of the Jealous Husband, which depicts the Murder of a Young Woman by Her Husband, A Child Testifying to Its Mother's Innocence, and The Saint Healing the Young Man with a Broken Limb.
In 1512 Titian returned to Venice from Padua; in 1513 he obtained a broker's patent, termed La Sanseria or Senseria (a privilege much coveted by rising or risen artists), in the Fondaco dei Tedeschi. He became superintendent of the government works, especially charged with completing the paintings left unfinished by Giovanni Bellini in the hall of the great council in the ducal palace. He set up an atelier on the Grand Canal at S. Samuele, the precise site being now unknown. It was not until 1516, after the death of Giovanni Bellini, that he came into actual enjoyment of his patent. At the same time he entered an exclusive arrangement for painting. The patent yielded him a good annuity of 20 crowns and exempted him from certain taxes. In return he was bound to paint likenesses of the successive Doges of his time at the fixed price of eight crowns each. The actual number he painted was five.
Andrea Gritti (1455 – December 1538) was the Doge of Venetian Republic from 1523 to 1538, following a distinguished diplomatic and military career.
His tomb in Venice.
Gritti was born in Bardolino, near Verona. He spent much of his early life in Constantinople (Istanbul) as a grain merchant, looking after Venetian interests. In the late 1490s he was using his commercial correspondence for sending encoded information to Venice regarding the movements of the Turkish navy. In 1499, he was imprisoned on charges of espionage, but escaped execution due to his friendship with the vizier, and was released several years later.
In the early sixteenth century, Venice lost nearly all its territory on the Italian mainland, and Gritti played an important part in the events connected with this loss and the eventual return to the status quo ante. In 1509, after the Venetian defeat at the Battle of Agnadello, Gritti was appointed as proveditor to the Venetian army in Treviso; ordered by the Council of Ten to support revolts against the invaders, he successfully engineered the return of Padua to Venetian hands, and its subsequent defence against the Emperor. In 1510, following the death of Niccolò di Pitigliano, Gritti took command of Venice's army, but was forced to withdraw to Venice by French advances. He continued as proveditor through end of the League of Cambrai and the subsequent war of the Holy League. In 1512, he led the negotiations with Francis I that resulted in Venice leaving the League and allying with France.
Elected Doge in 1523, Gritti concluded a treaty with Charles V, ending Venice's active involvement in the Italian Wars. He attempted to maintain the neutrality of the Republic in the face of the continued struggle between Charles and Francis, urging both to turn their attention to the advances of the Ottoman Empire in Hungary. However, he could not prevent Suleiman I from attacking Corfu in 1537, drawing Venice into a new war with the Ottomans. His dogaressa was Benedetta Vendramin.
Gritti died in December 1538.
The patrician Andrea Gritti (1455-1538) was elected doge, or duke, of Venice in 1523, after having served the city as a military commander and diplomat. Renowned for his forceful personality and his promotion of the arts, Gritti remained an active civic leader until his death in 1538. Titian painted Gritti twice during his reign. He completed this posthumous portrait, which might have been commissioned as a memorial by the doge's family, around 1546-1548.
Dressed in the brocade robes and conical hat of his office, Gritti makes a grand impression. Glancing sternly to the viewer's left, he gathers up his cloak with his right hand and appears to stride forward, as if in a ceremonial procession. Titian further enhanced the monumental presence of the sitter by extending his image fully to the edges of the canvas.
With its free, expressive brushwork, this portrait well exemplifies Titian's mature painting style. Because the canvas has never been flattened by the process of lining, the varying surface textures, such as the transparent red of the robe and the heavy impasto of the white fur and gold buttons, reveal the ways Titian applied his paints.
تـمثـال مـوســى للفنان الايطالي مايكل انجـلو، 1516
Michelangelo Buonarroti, Moses, 1516
يجمع المؤرّخون على اعتبار ميكيل انجلو الوريث الشرعي للفن الكلاسيكي الروماني والإغريقي.
كان ميكيل انجلو متفوّقا خصوصا في أعمال النحت، وهناك من يعتبره اعظم نحّات ومصوّر عرفه العالم في جميع العصور.
يشهد على ذلك منظومته النحتية الفريدة التي توّجها بإنجاز تمثال موسى.
استعار ميكيل انجلو نظريات أفلاطون في الهندسة وطبقها على تكويناته التي تغطي كنيسة سيستين في تناسق وتناغم رائع قل أن نجد له مثيلا.
كان الإنسان محور إبداعات ميكيل انجلو ونقطة الارتكاز التي اعتمدت عليها كافة أعماله النحتية والتصويرية. ويروى عنه انه عندما اكمل نحت هذا التمثال في كنيسة القديس بطرس وقف أمامه وقال له بلهجة واثقة: هيا . انهض الآن يا موسى!
ولد ميكيل انجلو بوناروتي في العام 1475 في توسكاني وتعلم في فلورنسا، ويعتبر تمثال موسى اعظم واشهر أعماله النحتية، وقد قام بإنجاز التمثال في العام 1516 نزولا عند رغبة البابا يوليوس الثاني، الذي كان، رغم طبيعته المقاتلة، يحب الفنون ويرعاها.
وبالإضافة إلى التمثال، أمر يوليوس ميكيل انجلو برسم سقف كنيسة سيستين ونحت قبره.
موسى كما هو معروف كان النبي الذي خرج بقومه اليهود من مصر وتلقى الوصايا العشر عند سفح جبل سيناء.
في التمثال تبدو يد موسى اليمنى وهي تحمي الألواح الحجرية التي كتبت عليها الوصايا، فيما تبدو يده اليسرى بعضلاتها المشدودة وعروقها النافرة كما لو أنها ارتدّت إلى وضعها الأول بعد حركة عنيفة.
عندما نزل موسى من جبل سيناء وجد قومه يعبدون العجل الذهبي الذي صنعوه بأنفسهم.
ويبدو في التمثال غاضبا مهتاجا كأنه يتحدّى سجن الحجر وضيق الحيّز. ولا بد وان السيّاح الذين يأتون لزيارة التمثال يشعرون بنظرات صاحبه الغاضبة والمتحدّية، وهي نفس النظرات التي واجهها عالم النفس سيغموند فرويد الذي قضى في المكان ثلاثة أسابيع في العام 1913 محاولا دراسة التأثير الانفعالي للتمثال.
من مظاهر قوّة هذا التمثال الأخرى اللحية الطويلة التي يصعب عادة تمثيلها في عمل نحتي. لكن عبقرية ميكيل انجيلو تجاوزت هذه الإشكالية إلى عنصر الفكر نفسه، عندما يدفع الناظر إلى التساؤل عن السبب الذي يجعل موسى يطيل لحيته..
ميكيل انجلو رسم في الواقع نهرا من الشعر المتدلي كالحبال العريضة والمتشابكة بالإضافة إلى القرنين البارزين من الرأس، وهي سمة تقليدية أراد بها إعطاء موسى لمحة شيطانية، ومن ثم فوق-إنسانية.
فرويد كان يرى في موسى صورة بطولية من صور الجسارة وضبط النفس، وهي سمة لم يكن يتمتع بها النحات ولا البابا نفسه الذي رعى هذا العمل الملحمي الكبير.
إذ كانت تنشب بين الاثنين الخلافات والمنازعات المستمرة أثناء إنجاز التمثال ورسومات الكنيسة.
ويقال إن ميكيل انجلو تعمّد إضفاء ملامح غاضبة ومتوترة على وجه التمثال كتجسيد لصورة يوليوس الثاني نفسه الذي كان يتصف بالتقى الممزوج بالثورة والفظاظة.
ويبدو أن ميكيل انجلو كان يفهم البابا جيدا، إذ كان هذا الأخير، مثل موسى، ينظر إلى الناس نظرة تعال وازدراء، كما تذكر بعض المصادر التاريخية.
The Moses (Italian: Mosè [moˈzɛ]; c. 1513–1515) is a sculpture by the Italian High Renaissance artist Michelangelo Buonarroti, housed in the church of San Pietro in Vincoli in Rome. Commissioned in 1505 by Pope Julius II for his tomb, it depicts the biblical figure Moses with horns on his head, based on a description in chapter 34 of Exodus in the Vulgate, the Latin translation of the Bible used at that time.
Pope Julius II commissioned Michelangelo to build his tomb in 1505 and it was finally completed in 1545; Julius II died in 1513 The initial design by Michelangelo was massive and called for over 40 statues. The statue of Moses would have been placed on a tier about 3.74 meters high (12 ft 3 in), opposite a figure of St. Paul.:566 In the final design, the statue of Moses sits in the center of the bottom tier.
Giorgio Vasari in the Life of Michelangelo wrote: "Michelangelo finished the Moses in marble, a statue of five braccia, unequaled by any modern or ancient work. Seated in a serious attitude, he rests with one arm on the tables, and with the other holds his long glossy beard, the hairs, so difficult to render in sculpture, being so soft and downy that it seems as if the iron chisel must have become a brush. The beautiful face, like that of a saint and mighty prince, seems as one regards it to need the veil to cover it, so splendid and shining does it appear, and so well has the artist presented in the marble the divinity with which God had endowed that holy countenance. The draperies fall in graceful folds, the muscles of the arms and bones of the hands are of such beauty and perfection, as are the legs and knees, the feet were adorned with excellent shoes, that Moses may now be called the friend of God more than ever, since God has permitted his body to be prepared for the resurrection before the others by the hand of Michelangelo. The Jews still go every Saturday in troops to visit and adore it as a divine, not a human thing."
The English translation of Freud's "The Moses of Michelangelo" also provides a basic description of the sculpture: "The Moses of Michelangelo is represented as seated; his body faces forward, his head with its mighty beard looks to the left, his right foot rests on the ground, and his left leg is raised so that only the toes touch the ground. His right arm links the Tables of the Law with a portion of his beard; his left arm lies in his lap."
Jonathan Jones of the English newspaper, The Guardian, provides another description: "Moses's right hand protects the stone tablets bearing the Commandments; his left hand, veins throbbing, muscles tense, appears to be holding back from the violent action. When he came down from Mount Sinai, Moses found his people worshipping the Golden Calf - the false idol they had made. His anger defies the prison of stone, the limits of the sculptor's art. Few can resist the impression of a real mind, real emotions, in the figure that glares from his marble seat. Today, he glares at the tourists who mob the church of San Pietro in Vincoli, Rome. He outfaces them, just as he outfaced Sigmund Freud, who spent three weeks in 1913 trying to figure out the sculpture's emotional effect. Moses's vitality has made this work popular since the 16th century; according to Vasari, Rome's Jewish population adopted the statue as their own. Its power must have something to do with the rendition of things that should be impossible to depict in stone; most quirkily, the beard - so ropy and smoky, its coils gave fantastic, snaking life. But where others might astonish us with technique, Michelangelo goes beyond this, leading us from formal to intellectual surprise, making us wonder why Moses fondles his beard, why Michelangelo has used this river of hair - in combination with the horns that were a conventional attribute of Moses - to give him an inhuman, demonic aspect."
