INTRODUCTION
Mahseer is acclaimed as a world famous outstanding game and food fish of India. As a sport fish, it provides unparalleled recreation to anglers from all over the world, better than salmon. It is known as tiger in waters, because of the fight it musters to wriggle off the hook. Anglers come to the Cauvery River in southern India in search of these mighty mahseer.In Northern Europe, you have the leaping salmon. In Russia and Mongolia, you have the ferocious taimen. In North America, the inscrutable muskellunge. And in South America, the humongous arapaima. These are some of the biggest and most challenging river fish you can find and international anglers are willing to pay big money to pit wits with them. In parts of South and South-East Asia, there is a large-scaled fish that can match or even surpass the strength and stamina of these fish.

For some, this fish has no equal. Half carp and half barbell, it thrives in the fast currents of rocky rivers, and can shoot up tall rapids and even small waterfalls. When hooked by an angler, it can fight for hours before it succumbs – if the angler is lucky enough not to have his line broken or hook straightened out!

In the past, mahseer formed a substantial natural fishery in the major riverine and lacustrine ecosystems of India. In commercial fisheries it occupies an important position for its good quality. For the fishermen mahseer is of considerable importance because of its large size. As a food fish, it is highly esteemed and fetches the high market price. The mahseer (tor tambroides’ and ‘tor Douronensis), known in Malaysia as ikan kelah - Red Finned Mahseer, Ikan Kelah Merah/ Merah Bara from Pahang/Terengganu and Ikan Kelah Merah Rebung from Kelantan, Semah/ Empurau from Sarawak, Pelian from Sabah, Kelah Hijau/ Kejor/Tengas - Malaysian, Semah/ Garing from Sumatra Indonesia, Blue Thai Mahseer from Thailand, Golden Burmese from Burma. In the Mekong basin lives the Chinese Mahseer (Tor sinensis). In India and Myanmar, you have the Golden Mahseer (Tor putitora and Tor tor)are large cyprinids inhabiting the clear, pristine and fast flowing waters of Asia, from the cool waters of Himalayan streams to the tropical rivers of South East Asian jungles. Rapid development in the watersheds within the natural range of many Tor species habitats, particularly the spawning grounds, is increasing pressure and threatening their survival. This has resulted in depletion of natural stocks and consequently some species have become rare, threatened and/or endangered. In view of their conservation value and the aquaculture potential, there are concerted efforts amongst researchers, developers, planners and conservationists and governments all across Asia to enhance the natural populations in rivers and natural water bodies.
Day (1878) believed that mahseer constituted only one species. Hora (1940) confirmed the validity of six different species. A recent critical study on the subject by Menon (1992) confirmed 6 valid species. He has, however, described a new species from the Darna River (Godavari drainage) at Deolali, Nashik District of Maharashtra, and named it Tor kulkarnii, which he describes as a dwarf cognate of Tor khudree. Preserntly seven valid species are recognized for India:


Scientific Name ....................... Common Name
Tor putitora (Ham.) -------------- Golden or putitora mahseer
Tor tor (Ham.) ------------------- Turiya or tor mahseer
Tor khudree (Sykes) -------------- Deccan or khudree mahseer
Tor mussullah (Sykes) ------------ Humpback or mussullah mahseer
Tor kulkarnii ---------------------- Dwarf mahseer
Tor progeneius (McClelland) ------- Jungha of the Assamese
Tor mosal (Sykes) ---------------- Copper or mosal mahseer

In addition to the above, three sub-species, viz., Tor mosal mahanadicus, Tor khudree malabaricus and Tor khudree longispinis are considered by Desai (2002) as valid species, with some reservations. Different species of mahseer occupy different ecosystems ranging from tropical waters where summer temperatures reach 35°C, to sub-Himalayan regions, where the temperatures fall to 6°C. Similarly, they occur in streams hardly above sea level and are also found at an altitude of 2000 m above sea level. Jhingran and Sehgal (1978) remarked that the occurrence and distribution of mahseer is controlled by the prevailing water temperature of the streams and not by the altitude.

Mahseers were considered as carnivorous and slow growing and thus unsuitable for fish culture. However, a careful study of the feeding habits of mahseer indicating that it is omnivorous has dispelled the notion that mahseer are carnivorous. Studies on the anatomical adaptations of the alimentary canal system also confirm that mahseer are omnivorous. Tripathi (1995) suggested the inclusion of mahseer in polyculture, cage culture and for river ranching and has stated that mahseer would not compete with mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala) and the common carp. The importance of mahseers as a World-famous game fish is well known. The group comes in a spectrum of colours from deep burnt copper, through gold, silver, dark black, and inhabit different rivers through out the length and breadth of India, Pakistan, Burma, Bangladesh Srilanka, and even Thailand, (Thomas, 1897). Among the seven different recorded species (viz. Tor putitora, T. mussulah, T.khudree, T mosal, T. progeneius, T. tor and Acrossocheilus hexangonolepis). Tor putitora or golden mahseer is one of the most-sought after species providing the main fishery in the uplands all along the Himalayan belt extending from Kashmir in the north-west to Sadiya in the north-east. The fish is also known as Greyhound or the thick-lipped mahseer and has been observed to attain the weight of 70-80 kg. (Misra, 1962). Anglers regard golden mahseer as one of the finest sport-fish and it is a source of recreation to innumerable sportsmen both Indian & Foreigner Thomas, 1897 in his famous book " The Rod in India" stated that pound for pound mahseer is far superior to ‘lordly salmon’ in sporting qualities. To the local fishermen too, mahseers have been of considerable importance because of their large size, hardy texture, high commercial value and longer shelf life.

In recent years due to their proximity to human intervention, mahseer stock is threatened with multifaceted dangers posed by construction of series of dams, barrages/ weirs across the rivers on one hand and over-exploitation on the other. While uncontrolled fishing and destructive fishing devices have adversely affected the riverine population, the construction of dams are acting as physical barrier to this migratory species, tending to prevent their access to their usual breeding and feeding grounds. Dams interrupt the river continuum and block the longitudinal connectivity of rivers. They also generate a complex web of impacts which affect the physical and biological components of the riverine environment. The denial of migration also results in permanent and irrevocable eradication of fish stock ranging from depletion to complete extermination. The ever-diminishing catches of mahseer from the river Satluj, Giri, Beas, Chenab and their tributaries clearly bespeaks the affects caused by the construction of Pandoh, Chamera, Pong, Bhakra & Giribata barrages. Regardless of their height, weirs and dams constitute barriers to breeding migration of mahseer. Further, mahseer population is also affected by morphological modifications resulting from completion of river valley projects. These include change in slope, river-bed profile, submersion of gravel zones or riffle section as well as destruction of riparian vegetation and changes in tropic regimes. Most of the negative factors affect upper parts of the streams where lacustrine conditions are superimposed on the river. Downstream, the hydrological conditions get severely altered through reduction of water discharge. The adverse conditions of the flow can extend over many kilometers downstream of the obstruction so that fish passages become difficult.

Indiscriminate hooking, netting, dynamiting and electrocuting have also greatly affected the mahseer availability in the State’s rivers and streams. In the pursuit of more and more catches, even the declared State’s sanctuaries have not been spared by the poachers. Further, due to reduced availability of large mahseer in the streams, fishing pressure on juveniles is on the increase with the result that streams earlier assuring a bountiful harvest have started giving a dismal picture. The various anglers’ Associations have painted a similar picture of other States of the country. Once teeming with thousands of mahseer, streams like Giri, Ashwani, Binwa Neugal, Beas, etc. the returns are sharply declining, raising the number of disgruntled anglers each year. Mahseer is known to be an omnivore fish in its adult stage. In earlier days considering the mouth opening and massive size, the fish was supposed to be a carnivore (Malhotra, 1982).

However, we have collected many samples from rivers of Pokhara Valley, where gut contained rice grain, small insects and plants. Mahseer therefore appears to be an opportunistic feeder which feeds on a wide variety of food of plant and animal origin. Mahseer have been found to also feed on green filamentous algae, insect larvae, small molluscs, and algal coatings on rocks (Shrestha, 1997; Negi, 1994; Dubey, 1985). Nautiyal and Lal (1984) reported that in natural habitat food of mahseer fingerlings consisted of insect matter (81.4 percent), plant matter (15.9 percent) and other items including fish (1.6 percent). Knowledge of natural feeding habits of mahseer would provide a basis for formulated feed development for this species. Studies on nutrition and feed management for different developmental stages of mahseer are a prerequisite for farming possibilities of this high value native species. Despite their abundance at one time, the mahseer population has been declining in number and size in natural waters and is in serious danger of extinction. The National Commission on Agriculture (1976) in its report on fisheries had stated there was a general decline in mahseer fishery in India due to indiscriminate fishing of brood and juvenile fish and the adverse effect of the river valley projects and accordingly suggested extensive survey and detailed biological investigation on this alarming situation.

The biological investigations commenced in 1970 in Pune District of Maharashtra under the guidance of C.V. Kulkarni and eventually yielded very significant information on artificial propagation of mahseer. The downward trend in the commercial and sport fishing catches of mahseer due to various man-made and ecological factors could be obviated by a continuous stocking programme on a large scale and by strictly enforcing the prevailing legislation. This programme would require production of fry and fingerlings of this species on a very large scale and their release in depleted natural perennial waters. During the last three decades of the 20th century extensive studies on the distribution, biology and fishery of the commercially important mahseers have been made by TPCL. This has led to development of techniques of breeding, larval rearing and cultural practices at TPCL hatchery farm Lonavla, which is now capable of producing fry and fingerlings of all the desired species of mahseer. The mahseer hatchery technology developed by TPCL may well lead to the revival of mahseer fisheries in Indian waters, provided standardised simple mahseer hatcheries based on TPCL technologies could be set up in the rural areas adjacent to rivers and reservoirs.

Causes of depletion. The exponential increase in human population is the root cause for the loss of biodiversity and the depletion of natural resources. Much has already been said regarding the depletion of mahseer. The major possible factors for the depletion of mahseer stocks are:

• degradation of ecological conditions of aquatic systems,

• indiscriminate fishing of broodstock and juveniles,

• impacts of river valley projects,

• industrial and human pollution,

• the use of explosives, poisons and electrofishing by poachers,

• introduction of exotic species,

• population pressures on resources.

The above- mentioned factors combined with human greed are responsible for the reckless damage to this priceless national heritage. The declining trend in the populations of mahseer needs immediate attention for its in situ conservation and rejuvenation in natural waters. The reasons for the conservation of this gene pool need no further emphasis. Several measures have been enumerated for their conservation (Kulkarni 1991; Ogale, 1997). The artificial propagation and distribution of resultant fry and fingerlings into different waters constitutes one of the most important steps to rehabilitate the species, as is being done for the well known salmon in American and European waters. However, for dependable and continued results, improved aquacultural practices for the breeding of mahseer under controlled conditions play a vital role.

The "kelah" or Golden Mahseer - takes three years to grow to a size of three kilogram! To grow to 8 kg would take some 40 years, depending on its environment and food sources. The kelah (scientific name "Tor Tombroides") which is also known as the "empurau" in Sarawak and Mahseer in India. Tor douronensis (Valenciennes, 1842), also known as blue kelah, are found in Thailand east to Vietnam and south to Indonesia. The other common name for this fish depending on the region/location it is found, are khela mahseer (or river carp) /Garing/ Semah/ Pelian - Indonesia. The kelah hijau is usually a tengas daun, a smaller sub-species of tengas, tengas can grow up to 5kg ..the biggest kelah was about 25kg ..caught in kenyir lake many many years ago. A fish of 50 kilograms is now considered a rarity with the average being more in the 5 to 10 kilogram range. Unfortunately, poachers have found Mahseer catches to be lucrative and many of the best fish end up in their traps and nets rather than on an angler's line. With large fins and a tendency to fight with rather than against the current gives Golden Mahseer the reputation of being amongst the most powerful freshwater fish. There are many stories of anglers being taken by surprise and ending up in the water with their rod, or only just saved by an attentive local guide. Other stories suggest that one of the best tactics for coping with the fishes initial run is to sprint downstream rod in hand. The kelah is one of Malaysia’s precious ecological heritage; a fish that is unique to the region. It is of very high economic value too. The prize fish which can fetch RM100 per kg, is now scarce as its population has dwindled either because of over-fishing or destruction of its habitat brought about by erosion. Anglers would have to persistent enough to trek into the upper reaches of the rivers to hunt for this game fish that foreigners call the "Malaysian Golden Mahseer". Among the places where anglers still go for the thrill of landing the fish are certain pools in the rivers of Taman Negara near Jerantut, like Sungai Tahan, Sungai Kenyam and Sungai Tembeling. Sungai Nenggiri in Gua Musang is also a haven for these much sought after freshwater fish that can fetch a good price at fine dining restaurants in the country. Sadly these Malaysian masheer (or tambriodes) faces extinction and efforts are underway to protect this endangered species. Anglers and eco-tourists are willing to pay significant sums of money to meet this fish! The kelah is essentially a carp, placed in the order of Cypriniformes, although it is loosely related to the European barbel (Barbus barbus).. It’s closer relatives are the mahseer species of India (Tor spp.) and several other countries in Asia. You could say that kelah is amember of Asia’s prime sport fishes. Kelah can be found in the mighty rivers of Malaysia: Sungai Pahang and its tributaries (Tembeling, Jelai, Tanum, Tahan, Keniam, Sat etc), S. Perak and its tributaries (Kejar, Chiong, Singor, Temengor), Sg. Muda and its tributaries (Teliang, Gawi), the rivers feeding Lake Kenyir (Petuang, Cacing, Terenggan, Tembat), Sg. Kelantan and its tributaries (Galas, nenggiri, Lebir, Aring, Pertang), The Endau-Rompin rivers (Endau, Kincin, Kemapan, Jasin, Mas, Lemakuh), and the Batang Rajang and Sg Kinabatangan systems. In fact, almost all the major rivers in the country – with the exception of Perlis – used to have stocks of this beautiful fish.
Golden Mahseer are omnivorous, feeding on plant matter and insects as juveniles and becoming more predatory as they get larger. Anglers will find a live or dead bait or a lure delivered in the bottom half of the water to work the best. Where possible, fishing from a boat is recommended as the biggest fish stay out where the current is strong. A boat also allows for a stretch of river to be covered easily - a big issue up in the mountains where the riverbanks may be very difficult to traverse.