Donald Trump’s journey to become President of the US in 2016 raised high awareness of the employment concerns and challenges of America’s white working class. Even before the election, notes economist Harry Holzer, “less-educated Americans, particularly men with high school or less Education, were stagnating or deteriorating.” Work activity among prime-age (25 to 54) men in America has declined harshly, leaving seven million or more working-age men in the US outside the labor force. The causes, says Holzer, include “lack of postsecondary education, dependence on benefit programs, opioid dependency, the rising prevalence of criminal records, a lack of available jobs in economically distressed areas, and weakening cultural norms.”

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