DRAMA
THE FINEST CREATION ON EARTH
T H E O R I G I N O F D R A M A:
[ The Greek theatre]
Between 600 and 200 BC, as is said by historians , perhaps, is the beginning of drama. In Athens, it was created as a theatre culture. From then on, this theatre culture became popular. The work of drama began from religious rituals. Greece people paid their offerings to Dionysus, the god of fertility. The manner of the offerings was endowed with dancing and displaying emotion. An essential part of the offerings was the dithyramb which was a chant and which was accompanied by mimicry and in that, a group of men were involved. This dithyramb , with passing of time, became play , and now it becomes drama.
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In about 600 B.C. lyrics were written formally for dithyramb and an actor who made an intermediate when chanting was installed. He was called the protagonist. Then came a second one then third fourth fifth and thus, the number of actors went on. As the number of actors became more, their activities became more, and a leader was chosen for dithyramb. A new plot was introduced.
In 532 BC, dithyramb became a popular annual event in Athens. Government came forward with help and announced a competition. Patrons came with wealth and a theatre was constructed.
In those days , plays were held in the daytime. There was a stone temple in the background. Around 484 BC, a great playwright came to the Athenian theatre. His name was Aeschylus. He added props and scenery . He is well known as 'Father of Tragedy' . He introduced new features: metaphorical speech, new kinds of supernatural and barbaric creatures. He tended much to the drama of man than the drama of God. In 468, Sophocles, a fine craftsman, took the leading role and gave a new shape of drama. To him human beings are the best creations , far better than God himself. His greatest creation 'Oedipus the King' is immortal on the earth. He was the master of tragic irony and suspense. Another contemporary who came into the theatre culture of Athens in Greece is Euripidis. His works were in dealing with common people. He produced equal feelings between a common man and a king. He showed the futility of war. He made a bulk of chides against religion. He tried to register the attention of womanhood and how they were being ignored. He showed how slaves and old were being oppressed, suppressed and killed. His is the creation of a dramatic prologue. He managed to create the perceptual work of practical pain. His great works are 'Alcestis', 'Medea', 'Cyclops', etc.
It is true that tragedy was the biggest work of the Athenian theatre culture, but comedy was not totally banished. The comedies like 'The Banqueters', 'The Babylonians' 'The Frogs and Plutus' are also seen.The use of satire,ironic situation, ordinary characters and wit influenced greatly the comedy creation. The work of Menander took the new spirit in the Latin world of comedies of Plautus and Terence.
Thus, since the Athenian age , dramatic motive has been encountered with changes with consequences of social reality.
T H E T Y P E S O F S T A G E S:
[early to present]
1) The classical theatre
2) The theatre of 1066-1500
3) Elizabethan and Restoration Stage ( from 1500 to 1728-imposing strict censorship laws in 1737)
4) Drama from 18th to 20th (Proscenium Stage)
Since time is changing, drama is changing and gearing new features.Since acting is changing,stage machineries and arrangements are changing.The changes of stages since early to present are thus as these ways:
THE CLASSICAL THEATRE:
The classical theatre was greatly influenced first by Greek and then by Romans. At that time dramas were acted on special occasions in the daytime.The audiences were free men and slaves. Women were not allowed to go to shows.
The Epidaurus theatre was performed under the open sky and seats for the audiences were made on the slope of the hill. The large circular place was made for the chorus.At the right corner,a passageway was also made for entrance and exit for the chorus and processions.The theatre of Epidaurus belonged to Hellenistic period.It was then in 4th century B. C.
During the 5th century BC,the theatre of Dionysus, a two-storey building was built with stones.The upper storey was used for the stage machinery and ground storey was used for acting. Gods had to come to the lower storey structure which had three doors which were flanked by projecting wings.With time passing,the two storey skene was found changed as stage production became detailed and completed. The two storey skene was divided into rooms. The front wall of the ground skene was separated with pillars and between the pillars, painted wooden panels were set.The actors were acting on the ground the ground storey which was about a foot high. There were three doors and served as the background.
Under the influence of Roman mechanism Greek theatre took many changes. The circular area got changed the front stage and the acting area has lost its old appearance.
NATIVE DRAMA:
Native drama of 1066-1500 is best known by morality plays,a type of allegory.It took a leading role to educate people through the entertainment.It is said that Christian monks developed the morality play into which they they supplied vices, virtues,the evil spirit, good angel,and stories of temptation through dramatic spoken words.Morality plays were held any time of the year because it was specifically performed in rues.
ELIZABETHAN STAGE:
From 1500 to 1660 is seen as the Elizabethan stage. It is best known as the 'apron stage'.Even 'apron stage' is seen in many theatres till today.
The raised platform about 5 ft. high,the seats for audiences on three sides were all very excellent.
The theatre structure of 1500-1660 was simple.It was circular structure which was surrounded by two or three tiers of covered galleries.In the centre there were two pillars that are used for supporting the celling.At the back part doors were served for entrance and exit of actors. There was another stage which was overlooked by galleries and which had balcony and windows.In front of the rear stage a movable curtain was seen.A exceptional decoration was that it had no wings.The front place of the stage was served most needs.On the open stage,it was held the actors' performance. There was also a porch type platform which is known as the apron. It stood in front of the Proscenium arch where most of the acting was performed. The Elizabethan stage could hold the capacity of two thousands audiences.
RESTORATION STAGE:
Restoration period is called by many as the Neoclassical Period.The return of Charles II(1660), England felt the need of new possibilities and sensibilities in every sphere under the influence of refined milieu or French flow.The themes, language, dramatic talents of Shakespeare claimed an absolute change. The revolution of 1688 left a deep impact on the 18th century. Playwrights tended to compose sentimental comedy and moralising domestic tragedy.In the 'London Marchant' we see a woman leads an industrial young man to the gates of hell.In 1728 a brief revival of satire , 'The Beggar's Opera' of John Gay brought it's unique success.But in 1737,the government passed a strict censorship laws.
PROSCENIUM STAGE:
Drama of 1800-2000 is called a proscenium stage.An auditorium was built.Audiences is viewed the action of the play from there.The apron was cut down and discarded after the middle of the 19th century.Two great proscenium stages are the Leningrad Young People's Theatre and the Royal Shakespeare Theatre.
DRAMA IS A FORM OF ART:
Like other literary branches, drama has a vision and mission. The essence of drama is the realization of life. The ingredients that drama takes come from interpretation of life. The stage machineries, different scenes and events are all part of our known world. Drama provides us with aesthetic pleasure.In drama we experience with imitation of life. The imitation includes characters, behaviors, traits,etc.
Though it is true that life and its activities show on the stage is a dramatic performance. All pictures of life can not be shown in a drama. It just focuses on the manual work of a man or the men. Even it can be untrue if a monster that has hundred heads is a tactful presentation and that has no reality in life.
Thus ,many have doubts about drama. Does it show realities of life or impress people by dramatic performance?
Here the question comes about its faithfulness. Our great mastermind Aristotle,once, made a remark that art has a book of imitation. What kind of book? Yes, here we have all the answers. In turning the pages of history we find that every art is the production of imitation. Here we have a concept of imitation not in any narrow sense. According to Aristotle, imitation is the leading representation of life. If analytically we study a comedy we realize that men on the earth are little better than a moral in moralizing. Compared with comedy, tragedy is better because of its seriousness than that of a comedy. Though imitative, it is not artificial,but artistic. That is why, in tragedy, representation comes from true imitation of life. It is not the work of narrow embellishment. Aristotle does not mean drama is a kind of copy work or Mimicry or physical imitation. He means the imitation of likeness that gives happiness, not in the sense of human happiness of getting a large house of gold biscuits or hundred large baskets of notes. But in ultimate consequences, these houses of gold and these notes would bring pain. This pain is happiness to one who is a perfect one and enjoys happiness because he knows that pain is a friend which could give real pleasure. It is art and it is a mirror, not an ordinary mirror in which we capture our bodily reflection. So, drama is not this kind of ordinary mirror, but that mirror can catch or find out the truth or basics of life. If a monster plays in a drama, it is a varied kind, and has an universal appeal of deeper consciousness addressing widely and diversely to people from age to age and culture to culture.
THE ANATOMY OF DRAMA
But melodrama and farce, on the bases of a beginning, a middle and an end, the frame structure of drama is divided into four junctures.These are:
THE EXPOSITION
THE CONFLICT
THE CLIMAX
THE DENOUEMENT
This juncture frame is basically seen in long plays, having three to four acts. In one act play, as of limited scope of letting out energy, these are not seen as junctures, but seen overlapping.
The exposition:
It offers the theme and situation of the play. The important character may be introduced. But exposition is short in one act play because the dramatist is under the control of limited time to release his full breath. He can have a lot of time for the introduction.
The conflict:
The next juncture is the conflict by which the dramatic atmosphere is created, and action of drama is developed. The conference of conflict is produced by two opposite dynamic intensities which may be combined by two struggling ideas, persons, a hero and his conscience or consciousness, a group against another group, or individual circumstances. This is the spine of the play growing unbreakable attention. Conflict after conflict is constituted of consequences. So why, the conflict is the supreme being of a drama.
The climax:
The climax is the next juncture that comes after conflict. The confirmation between two opposite dynamic intensities is found under the submission of one over another. It strengthens the end of play.
The denouement:
This is the last portion of the dramatic work. It is for which attention grows. It may be said that a conclusion has already taken place in the mind of audiences, but it will be superhit when his conclusion is confirmed.
Lastly, a dramatist has to have sound knowledge and keen wisdom about the psychological trend of the audiences.
PLOT:
Plot of the drama is to be claimed as one of the most important things.It is the pivot on which the story of the drama plays and functions. It ties the events and characters' roleplay. Plot advances the dramatic effect , and dramatic effect is the application of speciality. Plot and characters are woven together to make a single effect between time, place and action. Usually, the plot is seen as the beginning, the middle and the end. In a good number of plays, the denouement , which captures audiences' keenness to the last and which creates a deep impression upto the doors of their houses, may be seen in a reverse. With the advancement of plot, the interplay of expectation and surprise is developed.
In a collection of dramas, a subplot is seen as a second story. But a subplot is not a separate entity of the drama play. It is a part that brings the total effect and goes alongside with the main plot so that we can maximize our vista lives and understandings.
CHARACTER:
If the plot includes the chain of events, it is ,of course, related to the character or characters involved in the action of the events. So as in a drama, the people who work and control their emotions are called characters. Emotion calls attention through dialogue and action. Therefore, emotional outputs may have moral and intellectual elements that are the main constituents of the character. Emotional traits vary man to man, so he is treated as an individual. Individual finding is the best finding in the Dias on which we exist , work and play. Every individual is a divine being , a manifestation, manifestation of moralizing and intellectuals.
The main character in a drama is called protagonist, and if there is a protagonist there may have a probable chance to be an antagonist, or simply down to earth, a villain. From our knowledge and practice, we have encountered the characters that are radical, to the characters that are unchanged and stable as well. As a literary mirror and as the mimesis of life, characters have a division such as a round type character, a complex character and a cover character etc. If a character is seen unchanged till the end of the play is a type character, if a character is seen changeable is a complex character and if a character is brought to assist only to the advertisement of the plot is a cover character. All characters played in the drama are made of hard toil.
TIME, PLACE AND ACTION:
The ties of trios is the unity of the action and a unique oneness. As time is passing, working views are changing and the changing is made for a broader outlook and mission. Nothing stands still, everything is in motion as beings and things of the universe. In Aristotle's time, tragedy meant tears only and comedy meant only laughter, no heterogeneity. Now it is possible to closely entertain an admixture of tears and laughter.
The unity of time stands for the enactment of drama that is limited to two or three hours. The unity of place stands for the location to produce a single effect. The action unity means that the action is made on the square.
Today this implication is not imposed in certain dramas. But drama has an universal appeal and a unique application. Implementation of flexibility for implication is suitable for dynamic thoughts and views, and has a greater significance, but when it loses its reality or purity is questionable.
THE DRAMATIC TEXTURE:
The dramatic textures of the play are the following:
ACT AND THE SCENE:
An act is absolutely essential in a play. It is called the division of action. The Elizabethan dramas had three acts. In the nineteenth century, drama played in four acts. In the twentieth century, non- musical dramas played in three acts. Now , a lot of dramas are seen having no acts, but playing a sequence of scenes. There is also no major act in it. Shakespeare's plays consist of acts and scenes. Kalidasa's plays consist of acts only.
Acts and scenes are identified by dramatic presentations. After each act, the curtain falls. Each scene changes with the dimming of light. Being an independent unit, the scene does not change or break the continuity of place and time. Intermission occurs between acts.
A scene tells us a lot about the play as a whole. It helps us identify the thematic issues and complex texture of the scene. A texture of the scene includes poetry, metaphor, imagery, etc.
ATMOSPHERE:
Atmosphere keeps the tone of a drama. The tone includes atmospheric tense such as fearful, sad, happy and many. Like, ghosts appearing create a fearful atmosphere.
ASIDE:
Aside is like a close talk. It is about an information type. Sometimes, we witness that a character whispers to the audience in a personal way which is intended for not to be heard by other characters in the stage.
COMIC RELIEF:
Comic relief is made by injecting a bit of humor into a serious play which relieves the heavy tension of tragic events. In comic relief , scenes or speeches or funny characters come to amuse the audience and alleviate tension.
DEUS EX MACHINA:
It is a Latin word and it shows 'a god from a machine'. In Deus ex Machina, it is seen, especially tended by Greek playwrights, to the end of a drama a god lowering to the stage by a mechanical application. The god by his judgment and command is resolved the dilemmas of the human characters.
FLASHBACK:
It is a technical input by which a playwright infuses a narrative flow of incidents from the past. It is held by interrupting the main storyline of the play or performing in chorus by the beginning of the act or scene.
FORESHADOW:
Foreshadowing in a hint or clue by providing a line which indicates the future events.
IRONY:
Dramatic irony is the expression of words in colouring and in extended manners. In dramatic irony, the meaning of words is opposite of the wordplay. It occurs in the opposite direction of the speaker's thought. The character who speaks irony may be ignored about its contents. Irony is two kinds- tragic irony or irony of comedy. Adding irony, the character's speech heightens the dramatic effect.
MASK:
Wearing masks in the play is an elaborate form of court entertainment that combines poetic drama, music, song, dance, costume and stage spectacle. At the end of the play characters remove masks as a sign of respect.
10) PANTOMIME:
It is a speechless show. It includes gestures, bodily movements and facial expressions with background music.
11) SOLILOQUY:
In soliloquy, the character performs the acting by talking to himself. It is not the act of whispering, but talking aloud on the stage. This is a dramatic presentation of the character's high thinking which leads to the judgment and responses of the audience. A handful of dramas have long expository soliloquies which express emotions and feelings.
THE ONE - ACT PLAY
One-act play is very famous. It seems that one act play is the short form of a long play. This is not an applicable thought about the one-act play. One-act play is a completely separate literary form. It has its own features.
One-act play always bears a single situation. Its aim is to produce a single effect. As it is short, its time of ending ends within a short time. Though it is short, its economy is immense. Because of its economy, it has a high requirement of concentration. It drops those things that are useless and needless. Its structure is knitted well with the precise care of attention. This art form demands hard mastery of training and practice. One may think that as it is a short form of art its theme perhaps is short. This is not so. Everything on the earth is its theme. An one-act play may include many varied subjects as its theme. Also it may produce an optimum effect on the pivotality of one action.
Art could be best applied for life. Thus in this sense life has its art effect that can be produced in all manners and means. From younger to older, all are connected with problems and we all try to solve the problem of life. One -act play in connection with life deals with many such problems as love, marriage, crime, punishment, law, war etc. So it may be labeled with different types : problem play, realistic play, satire, romance and many more. It is the play writer's choice of theme.
Like other long dramas, it has its beginning, middle and the end. Like others, it also has its basic features: the Exposition, the conflict, the climax, and the denouement.
Having the exposition, it has an introductory part which includes the situation and the theme and also characters that are explained briefly to the audience.
After the Exposition, there comes the conflict which develops the action of the play. The conflict is the feature which includes the turmoil between two opposite forces: interests, ideas, persons, circumstances, and the hero and his antagonists or many. The conflict brings interest to the audience or the readers of the one-act play. It is the utmost importance of the one-act play being its ultimate consequence.
The climax is all pervasive of one-act play after conflict. It is the turning point of this kind of drama. Of the two opposite forces, one gains and creates its prime action. One owns and another loses. It is the second important stage of a one-act play.
The final stage of a one-act play is the denouement which is the end of the play. Between the two opposite forces, one gets its victory. It may be said to be the concluding effect of the story of the play. The denouement is short and may overlap with the climax.
In addition with the above features, there are three units; time, place and action. In many cases, it is very hard to recognize them separately. But unity of time,place and action are there to be observed if hard effort is given.
One of the most important things in a one-act play is the involvement of characters. In a one-act play the involvement of characters is limited, less in number than those of a long drama. Dramatist’s effort to produce effect will lose or may go in vain if any one-act play is overcrowded with too many characters. Therefore, it is to be remembered that generally in one- act play two or three leading characters are found. With the number limitation of characters, dramatists do not have enough scope to develop them fully. Many depictions of characters are totally avoided. Only a few silent settlements of character are revealed depending on the situations and circumstances.
Generally, modern one-act play avoids making saint and devil characters. It draws much in making human beings, of course, having virtues and vices.
Dialogue calls much attention to the one-act play. There is not a huge scope of dialogue flowing. Dramatists have to avoid excesses of dialogue. Words and sentences are chosen neatly, precisely and carefully. Dialogues are simple and easy to understand. Any long speech, long argument and exaggeration would lessen the charm and interest of the play.
Perhaps, much decoration of the stage is not possible at all because the playwright does not have total freedom to produce his creation. He can not supply all the information.
It is seen that in almost all one-act plays are commenced with all stage directions. As the dramatist remains under absolute control, he can not supply all information through a lengthy exposition. So he takes the service of the stage direction, and serves his purpose. Thus he brings a striking effect about the reality in the audience.
Today’s changed scenario, plays are written for reading. Many readers find a great interest in reading plays. A fresh acquaintance with stage direction conveys them much into realism.
TRAGEDY AND ITS VARIOUS KINDS
Tragedy means something sad. In tragedy plays, we have seen a sad ending in a sense of pleasure. Aristotle defined tragedy in his poetics around 330 BC as “the imitation of an action that is serious and also as having magnitude, complete in itself.” It is a crude form of opinion about tragedy particularly because it indicates an emotional appeal, but fails to complete the most important element of tragedy.
Aristotle says about the principle character and about its pity and suffering condition.To him, in the manner of dramatic rather than narrative, the principle character is the tragic hero who is neither fully good nor thoroughly bad but the mixture of both and also higher than ordinary man in moral worth. Such a man suffers from change of fortune, from happiest to saddest because of his choice of action which he chooses by mistake, and remains in hamartia.The plot evokes pity and fear till the logical conclusion. Aristotle defined this about the Athenian plays, witnessed by him, where was called the mimesis.
Although having much controversy about Aristotle’s description, it does not lose all the universal appeal of the aspects of the tragedy. From his description, we find four different elements in tragedy: nature, form, manner and function.
The nature of tragedy expresses the representation of an action which is of human beings and which involves conflict, crisis and denouement.This tragic nature is seen in many Shakespeare’s plays and even in many modern plays. The nature of action in tragedy is serious. Evidently,it deals with some gravous matters of human life. In plays like ‘Doctor Faustus’, ‘Macbeth’ and many other tragedies, the nature of action of tragedy is serious and the suffering of noble men and women. It surely has a definite end. Commonly seen, tragedy ends with the demise of a certain character.
There is also another aspect of nature of action. It is about its limited length. It has the unity of time in which the action of the play is concluded.
Aristotle’s tragedy has the second important element which is the form of tragedy. The form which supports the action of tragedy includes the speech delivery in a magnificent way, dialogue in long, short,poetic, picturesque, embellished and appealing. The Greek plays had chorus.The Shakespeare’s plays had soliloquy and songs. In modern plays, background music enhances the beauty of the action.
The third important one is the manner in which the action 0f the tragedy is maintained. Noted by Aristotle, tragedy is acted, not just recited. Therefore it has a dramatic representation which necessarily includes the movement and gesture.
The fourth important element is the function. It means the emotional effect which is produced with fear and pity. The action of tragedy releases a healthy impact on the mind. It brings forth an optimistic appeal. Letting go of all selfishness and narrowness, there comes the existence and elevation of a striking realization of life forces. It applies a significant moral purpose which is popularly called ‘cathasis’ by the Greeks. This cathartic effect produced by fear and pity has the high value of the tragedy. By explaining this, the audience takes and energizes the satisfaction out of unhappiness. He takes in the experience that man has to struggle against man. Broadlessly, tragedy is the drama of individual will. Barring to Aristotle’s definition, not all tragic heroes suffer for the error himself.
More than this, tragedy has many other elements. Besides individual failure, it also includes such elements as nation crumble and ambition,last and ingratitude, man and fate, love and mockery, and mankind ravage, and so on. For an example given, in the ‘Hamlet’, we see the shock of Hamlet knowing about the cause of his father’s death and his mother’s infidelity.
