Before Communist China existed, for over a 1,000 years, Tibet was a ‘protectorate’ of the Manchu/Qing Dynasty. Tibet however maintained its own language, governor, laws, army, and paid no taxes. China’s control over Tibet weakened during the 1800’s, when China suffered assaults from the Japanese and British Empires. By the turn of the 1900’s, its Tibet was nearly independent … but not for long.
When the 1912 Revolution overthrew the Manchu Dynasty in 1912, it gave the Tibetan government the chance to expel all Chinese troops. Emboldened Tibetan soldiers drove the Chinese military back across its borders. For the first time in a millennium, Tibet was an independent nation, with Lhasa as its capital. It maintained diplomatic relations with neighboring Nepal, Bhutan, and India, as well as Great Britain. Relations with the new Chinese Republic, however, were tense and strained.
After the death of the 13th Dalai Lama in 1933, Tibet fell under the rule of a corrupt Regent, Reting Rinpoche. Unrest plagued the nation until a new Lama was found. In 1937, a young candidate was discovered on a farm in the Chinese-controlled province of Amdo. It took 2 years of negotiations with China, and a ransom to be paid, before Beijing allowed the young boy, Tenzin Gyatso, to leave for Lhasa. He was ordained and declared the 14th Dalia Lama in 1940 … at only 5! The government would remain under the control of the Regent till he came of age.
The Chinese Republic continued to claim to the world that Tibet was still one of China’s Five Races, and forever a part of China. It sought to “liberate” Tibetans from their serf-like existence and return Tibet to the “motherland.” Western countries, including Britain and the U.S., sided with Chinas and refused to recognize Tibetan independence.
The Founding of Communist China in 1949 changed everything.
The Communists once again claimed Tibet as part of Red China, and this time had the military power to enforce it. China wanted a formal agreement from the Dalai Lama himself towards reunification. The Tibetan government refused, and the Chinese military invaded. The People’s Liberation Army (PLA) crossed Tibet’s eastern border. Sadly, the PLA quickly defeated the small Tibetan army and China occupied half the country. As the Chinese army advanced towards Lhasa, religious leaders urged power be transferred to the young Dalai Lama.
A month later, at only 15, the Dalai Lama Tenzin Gyatso assumed full political control of Tibet and its 6 million people.
China sent a military delegation to Lhasa demanding reunification. Tibet pleaded to the world for help, but neither the US, Britain, India or the United Nations responded. Tibet faced the entire might of Communist China alone. The Dalai Lama reluctantly sent a negotiating team to Beijing. Once there, the Tibetan negotiators were NOT allowed to communicate with Lhasa. Communist leaders pressured them to sign an agreement, despite having NO authority to do so. Under threat of a full scale military invasion, they had no choice but to sign. It became the 17-Point Agreement on Measures for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet in 1951.
The young Dalai Lama bravely chose not to flee into exile and abandon his people, but rather stay and reluctantly accept the terms. It forced Tibet to return to Chinese jurisdiction, while maintaining some domestic autonomy and religious freedom. The presence of 40,000 Chinese troops in eastern Tibet, the threat of an occupation of Lhasa, and the obliteration of the Tibetan state, left the boy little choice.
Because it was signed under duress, the agreement lacked validity under international law. The 17-Point Agreement also proved difficult to implement. Throughout the 1950s, China’s Communist Party expected Tibetans to convert to Socialism. ‘Reforms’ sparked resistance when authorities tried to take land from Buddhist monasteries. Relations between Tibetan Buddhists and Chinese Communists worsened as monasteries became sites of resistance and shelter for rebels. As resistance escalated, Chinese repression increased. They began destroying religious temples and imprisoning monks.
The Dalai Lama visited Beijing in 1954, and met with Chairman Mao Zedong. But to no avail.
By 1958, rebellion was simmering in Lhasa, and the PLA military commander threatened to bomb the city. After 8 years of occupation and repression, the Tibetan Uprising of 1959 erupted. Tibetans rebelled in an attempt to overthrow the Chinese occupying government. The popular uprising culminated in March with massive demonstrations in Lhasa. They were triggered by fears of a Communist plot to arrest the Dalai Lama and imprison him in Beijing.
Tibetans banded together in defiance and took to the streets to protest in front of the white Potala Palace. Chinese military officers invited the Dalia Lama to visit PLA military headquarters in Lhasa for an “official Tea,” including a theatrical dance show. He was told however, he must come alone, with NO Tibetan military bodyguards. The PLA would handle his security. Of course, the Dalai Lama’s staff feared he would be arrested once in Communist hands
300,000 loyal Tibetans surrounded the Norbulinka Summer Palace, protecting the Dalai Lama. In response, Chinese artillery was moved in and aimed directly at the palace demonstrators. After learning of Buddhist lamas being arrested in the night, the Dalai Lama, now 23 years old, reluctantly agreed to flee from Lhasa that very night. Disguised as a common soldier, he fled with about 20 loyal followers, including family and 6 members of his cabinet.
Fighting broke out in Lhasa 2 days later, with Tibetan rebels hopelessly outnumbered and outgunned. The Chinese army began shelling Norbulinka Palace, slaughtering tens of thousands of Tibetan demonstrators, including women and children camped outside. The PLA executed the Dalai Lama’s guards then began destroying Lhasa’s monasteries and the Buddhist monks inside. By the time China had crushed the uprising, 87,000 Tibetans were dead in Lhasa alone.
After the imprisonment of the Panchen Lama, Tibet’s 2nd ranking spiritual leader, China no longer felt bound by any of its earlier promises. China abolished the Tibetan government, violated human rights, and instituted agricultural communes. This was described by the Tibetan people as a cultural genocide.
Indian Prime Minister Nehru agreed to host the Dalia Lama. He has lived in exile in northern India ever since. The Dalai Lama now heads the Tibetan Government-in-exile, headquartered in Dharmsala, India in the Himalayan foothills. About 80,000 Tibetans fled and eventually followed him into exile. In 1963, he released a new Constitution for a democratic, semi-autonomous Tibet, implemented by his Government-in-exile.
The Dalai Lama wanted a compromise with China that would give them defense and foreign affairs.
No such compromise was ever made. The Chinese Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) attempted to completely destroy Tibetan religious life, including its temples and monasteries. Religious figures and other educators were forced into their infamous Re-education Camps. The vast Buddhist monastic system was dismantled, and religious activities prohibited. Tibetan monks were forced out of their monasteries and ordered to marry, a violation of their vows of celibacy.
After the death of Chairman Mao Zedong in 1976, these hardline policies shifted a bit. The 1980s were a somewhat better period of China-Tibet relations. Some monasteries were allowed to be rebuilt and Buddhist monks returned. People were again allowed to practice their religion publicly and Tibetan culture was even promoted. There were also tentative talks again between the Dalai Lama and Beijing … but as in the past, they broke down without any progress.
“China can keep her troops on Tibet frontiers and we will pledge to accept a form of union with China.”
Tibetan Dalai Lama
Riots once again spread throughout Lhasa in 2008 and Beijing declared Martial Law, resulting in the deaths of 400 protestors. All foreign nationalists were evacuated. Demonstrations for democracy and Dalai Lama, or even Buddhism, was seen again as treason by Chinese Communists. From India, the Dalia Lama proposed a compromise relationship with China, promoting autonomy, not independence. One that would maintain Beijing control of defense and foreign affairs, and return domestic control back to him. It went nowhere once again.
Over the last 60 years, about 1.2 million Tibetans have lost their lives (almost 1/6th the population) as a result of the Communist China occupation. All throughout those 7 decades, China never succeeded in destroying the Tibetan people’s spirit to resist, or their culture, or their religion. The Dalai Lama in now 88 and still living in exile. The newest millennial generation of today’s Tibetans seems just as determined to regain their independence from China as did their parents and grandparents.
For more by historical writer Paul Andrews, click BOOKS.
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The post China vs. Tibet, a Century of Stalemate first appeared on LOST IN HISTORY.
