The Structure of the Earth

• the internal structure of the Earth;
• classification of rocks: igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic;
• the rock cycle
• intrusive igneous activity and associated features: batholiths, laccoliths, monoliths, dykes, sills and pipes; and
• overview of landforms associated with igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.

Plate Tectonics

• changes in the position of continents over time;
• evidence for the movement of continents over time;
• plate tectonics – an explanation for the movement of continents;
• the mechanics of plate movements;
• processes and landforms associated with different kinds of plate boundaries; and
• the world’s volcanic and earthquake zones.

Folding and Faulting

• the process of rock folding – link to plate movement;
• landforms associated with folding;
• the process of faulting – link to plate movement;
• different types of faults; and
• landforms associated with faulting, such as rift valleys and block mountains.

Earthquakes

• how and where earthquakes occur;
• the relationship between earthquakes and tectonic forces;
• measuring and predicting earthquakes;
• how earthquakes and tsunamis affect people and settlements – differences in vulnerability;
• strategies to reduce the impact of earthquakes; and
• case examples of the effects of selected earthquakes.

Volcanoes

• types of volcanoes: extrusive, intrusive, active, dormant and extinct;
• structure of volcanoes;
• impact of volcanoes on people and the environment: positive and negative; and
• case studies of different volcanic eruptions.

GEOGRAPHICAL SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES (applied to above topics)
Mapwork Skills [2 hours]
• locating exact position: degrees, minutes and seconds; and
• scale: word, ratio, fraction and line scale.
Topographic Maps [4 hours]
• South African 1:50 000 map referencing system;
• 1: 50 000 maps: conventional signs and symbols;
• navigating position using compass directions (16 points);
• direction: true and magnetic bearing;
• landforms and contours; and
• simple cross-sections.
Aerial Photographs and Orthophoto Maps [2 hours]
• photographs of landscapes;
• oblique and vertical aerial photos; and
• orthophoto maps to be used in conjunction with 1:50 000 maps and aerial photos.
Using Atlases [2 hours]
• atlas index – locating physical and constructed features;
• four-digit grid reference (latitude and longitude, degrees and minutes) to identify and locate features on maps; and
• map projections: examples of equal area and true direction projections – critical evaluation

GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE
Population Distribution and Density [4 hours]
• meaning of population distribution and population density;
• world population density and distribution; and
• factors that affect the distribution and density of the world’s population.
Population Structure [4 hours]
• population indicators: birth rates, death rates, life expectancy, fertility rate, and natural increase;
• factors that influence population indicators; and
• population structure: age and sex, represented as population pyramids.
Population Growth (Using case studies from around the world is essential) [6 hours]
• world population growth over time;
• demographic transition model;
• concept of overpopulation; and
• managing population growth.
Population Movements (Using cases studies to illustrate topics below is essential)[8 hours]
• kinds of population movement: international migration, emigration, immigration;
• regional migration, rural-urban migration, urbanization, voluntary and forced migration;
• causes and effects of population movements;
• temporary and permanent movements including migrant labour, economic migrants, political migrants, and refugees;
• attitudes to migrants and refugees.
HIV and AIDS [4 hours]
• HIV infection rates in southern Africa;
• social and economic effects of HIV and AIDS, using specific examples from the southern African region; and
• the impact of HIV and AIDS on population structure.

Water in the World [2 hours]
• different forms of water in the world: liquid, solid, and gas;
• the hydrological cycle.
• occurrence of salt water and fresh water: oceans, rivers, lakes, groundwater and atmosphere; and
The World’s Oceans [4 hours]
• oceans as sources of oxygen, food and energy;
• ocean circulation – warm and cold currents;
• ocean currents and their importance for fishing, trade, and tourism;
• relationship between oceans and people: pollution, overfishing and desalination; and
• strategies for managing the world’s oceans.
Water Management in South Africa [5 hours]
• rivers, lakes and dams in South Africa;
• factors influencing the availability of water in South Africa;
• challenges of providing free basic water to rural and urban communities in South Africa;
• the role of government – initiatives towards securing water: inter-basin transfers and building dams;
• role of municipalities: provision and water purification; and
• strategies towards sustainable use of water – role of government and individuals.
Floods [4 hours]
• causes of flooding – physical and human;
• characteristics of floods – analysis and interpretation of flood hydrographs;
• managing flooding in urban, rural and informal settlement areas; and
• case study of a flood in South Africa.

Topographic Maps [2 hours]
• landforms and contours.
Aerial photographs and Orthophoto Maps [2 hours]
• photographs of landscapes;
• oblique and vertical aerial photos; and
• orthophoto maps to be used in conjunction with 1:50 000 maps and aerial photos.
Geographical Information Systems (GIS) [2 hours]
• GIS concepts: spatial objects, lines, points, nodes and scales.

Mapwork Skills [4 hours]
• locating exact position: degrees, minutes and seconds;
• relative position: direction and magnetic bearing;
• scale: word, ratio and line scale;
• distance: measuring distances and converting to ground distance, straight line and curved (practise); and
• calculating area: regular and irregular.
1:50 000 Topographic Maps [8 hours]
• contours and landforms;
• cross-sections on 1:50 000 topographic maps;
• vertical exaggeration;
• intervisibility; and
• gradient.
Aerial Photographs and Orthophoto Maps [4 hours]
• oblique and vertical aerial photographs – identifying landforms and features;
• use of tone, texture and shadow in the interpretation of photos;
• orthophoto maps – identifying features; and
• orienting aerial photographs and orthophoto maps with another map.
Geographical Information Systems (GIS) [4 hours]
• spatially referenced data;
• spatial and spectral resolution;
• different types of data: line, point, area and attribute;
• raster and vector data;
• application of GIS to climatology and meteorology, as well as oceanography, using satellite images; and
• capturing different types of data from existing maps, photographs, fieldwork or other records on tracing paper.
Using Atlases (revision) [2 hours]
• using the index;
• locating places on different maps, using degrees and minutes; and
• comparing information from different maps.
Fieldwork [2 hours]
• observation;
• collecting and recording data; and
• processing, collating and presenting fieldwork findings

The Earth’s Energy Balance [4 hours]
• the unequal heating of the atmosphere – latitudinal and seasonal;
• significance of Earth’s axis and revolution around the Sun; and
• transfer of energy and energy balance – role of ocean currents and winds.

Global Air Circulation

• global air circulation – a response to the unequal heating of the atmosphere;
• world pressure belts;
• tri-cellular circulation: Hadley, Ferrel and polar cells;
• the relationships between air temperature, air pressure and wind;
• pressure gradient, Coriolis force and geostrophic flow;
• winds related to global air circulation: westerlies, tropical easterlies and polar easterlies;
• air mass characteristics; and
• winds related to regional and local air movements: Monsoons and Föhn.

Africa’s Weather and Climate

• Africa’s climate regions;
• subsidence and convergence – link to rainfall;
• the role of oceans in climate control in Africa;
• El Niño and La Niña processes and their effects on Africa’s climate; and
• reading and interpreting synoptic weather maps.

Droughts and Desertification

• areas at risk: regional and local scales;
• causes of droughts;
• causes of desertification;
• effects of droughts and desertification on people and the environment, such as differences in vulnerability; and
• management strategies – case studies.

Aerial Photographs and Orthophoto Maps

• oblique and vertical aerial photographs – identifying landforms and features;
• use of tone, texture and shadow in the interpretation of photos;
• orthophoto maps – identifying features; and
• orienting aerial photographs and orthophoto maps with another map.

Geographical and Information Systems (GIS)

• satellite images; and
• application of GIS to climatology and meteorology.

Topography Associated with Horizontally Layered Rocks

• characteristics and processes associated with the development of: hilly landscapes, basaltic plateaus, canyon landscapes and Karoo landscapes (mesa, butte and conical hill);
• concept of scarp retreat or back wasting; and
• utilization of these landscapes by people.

Topography Associated with Inclined/Tilted Rock Strata

• characteristics and processes associated with the development of: a scarp slope, a dip slope, a cuesta, homoclinal ridge, hogsback, cuesta basin and cuesta dome; and
• utilization of these landscapes by people.

Topography Associated with Massive Igneous Rocks

• identification of batholiths, laccoliths, lopoliths, dykes and sills; and
• characteristics and processes associated with the development of granite domes and tors.

Slopes

• overview of South Africa’s topography;
• types of slopes;
• slope elements: crest, cliff (scarp slope, free face), talus (debris, scree slope), and pediment;
• characteristics of the slope elements: crest, cliff, talus and pediment;
• slope development over time; and
• the concept of slope retreat.

Mass Movements and Human Responses

• concept of mass movements;
• kinds of mass movements: soil creep, solifluction, landslides, rockfalls and mudflows, and slumps;
• the impact of mass movements on people and the environment; and
• strategies to prevent or minimise the effects of mass movement – South African case studies.

Topographic Maps

• contours and landforms;
• cross-sections on 1:50 000 topographic maps;
• vertical exaggeration;
• intervisibility; and
• gradient.

Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

• spatially referenced data;
• spatial and spectral resolution;
• different types of data: line, point, area and attribute;
• raster and vector data; and
• capturing different types of data from existing maps, photographs, fieldwork or other records on tracing paper.

Fieldwork

• observation;
• collecting and recording data; and
• processing, collating and presenting fieldwork findings.

The Concept of Development

• terminology associated with development, such as developed, developing, more economically developed countries (MEDCs) and less economically developed countries (LEDCs), and industrialised countries;
• the concept of development: economic, social, sustainable, appropriate scale and spatial aspects;
• economic, social and demographic indicators of development: GNP, GDP, HDI Gini-coefficient, life expectancy and infant mortality; and
• examples to illustrate differences in development from local, regional, and global contexts.

Frameworks for development

• factors that affect development, including: access to resources, energy, history, trade imbalances, population growth, education and training, natural resource limitations and environmental degradation (note: learners need to explore the complexity and inter-related nature of these factors);
• development models: free market models, such as Rostow’s model with its limitations and criticisms, core and periphery models with their application at different scales; sustainability models with their economic, social, and environmental elements; and
• community-based development, including approaches to rural and urban development (with examples from around the world).

Trade and Development

• international trade and world markets: commodities traded and terms of trade;
• types of trading relationships, including: free trade, trade barriers, subsidies and fair trade;
• the concept of globalisation and its impact on development; and
• export-led development – critically examined (with examples from around the world).

Development Issues and Challenges

• the role of women in development: gender issues related to power, access to resources and attitudes;
• the effect of development on the environment;
• the role of the state and business in development in South Africa, including central control by the state, weak state control and public private partnerships.

Role of Development Aid

• concept of development aid and development co-operation;
• types of development aid – technical, conditional, humanitarian; and
• impact of aid on development (including case studies of development aid – positive and negative).

Mapwork Skills (with reference to 1:50 000 topographic maps)

• locating exact position: degrees, minutes and seconds;
• relative position: direction and magnetic bearing;
• scale: word, ratio and line scale;
• Distance: measuring distances and converting to ground distance along a straight line (practice)
• calculating area.

Using Atlases (revision)

• using the index;
• locating places on different maps using degrees and minutes; and
• comparing information from different maps.

Using Resources

• the relationship between resources and economic development;
• exploitation and depletion of resources; and
• concepts of sustainability and sustainable use of resources.

Soil and Soil Erosion

• how soils are formed;
• soil as a resource;
• causes of soil erosion: human, animal, physical, and past and present;
• evidence of soil erosion in South Africa;
• effects of soil erosion on people and the environment; and
• management strategies to prevent and control soil erosion.

Conventional Energy Sources and their Impact on the Environment

• maps and graphs to show thermal, hydro, and nuclear energy production in South Africa;
• thermal electricity generation using coal – outline of principles and processes;
• the impact of coal mining and thermal power stations – environmental despoliation, solid waste, waste gases and acid rain;
• case study of nuclear energy – advantages and disadvantages; and
• South Africa’s potential to meet long-term energy needs using conventional sources.

Non-conventional Energy Sources

• solar energy – examples from South Africa and the world;
• wind energy – examples from South Africa and the world;
• future of non-conventional energy in South Africa; and
• possible effects of using more non-conventional energy on the South African economy and the environment.

Energy Management in South Africa

• South Africa’s changing energy needs;
• energy management, towards greener economies and sustainable lifestyles: responsibilities of governments, businesses and individuals.

Mapwork Techniques (revision and application)

• applying map skills and techniques: scale, contours and cross-sections;
• direction: magnetic north, true north and magnetic declination;
• grid referencing;
• map and photo interpretation, including: reading and analysis of physical and constructed features; and
• using maps and other graphical representations: synoptic weather maps and temperature graphs.

Topographic Maps (revision and application)

• 1: 50 000 maps: conventional signs and symbols;
• contours and landforms;
• cross-sections on 1:50 000 maps;
• vertical exaggeration;
• intervisibility; and
• gradient.

Aerial Photographs and Orthophoto Maps

• interpreting vertical aerial photographs;
• orthophoto maps – identifying features; and
• comparing an orthophoto map with a topographic map.

Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

• examination of a selection of satellite images;
• GIS concepts: remote sensing and resolution;
• spatial and attribute data; vector and raster data;
• data standardisation, data sharing and data security;
• data manipulation: data integration, buffering, querying and statistical analysis;
• application of GIS techniques to a range of topics covered in Grade 12; and
• developing a “paper GIS” from existing maps, photographs or other records on tracing paper.

Using Atlases (revision and application)

• examining thematic maps; and
• comparing information from different maps

Mid-latitude Cyclones

• general characteristics;
• areas where mid-latitude cyclones form;
• conditions necessary for their formation;
• stages of development and related weather conditions;
• weather patterns associated with cold, warm, and occluded fronts; and
• reading and interpreting satellite images and synoptic weather maps.

Tropical Cyclones

• general characteristics;
• areas where tropical cyclones form;
• factors necessary for their formation;
• stages of development;
• associated weather patterns;
• reading and interpreting satellite images and synoptic weather maps;
• case study of one recent tropical cyclone that affected southern Africa;
• impact of tropical cyclones on human activities and the environment; and
• strategies that help to prepare for and manage the effects of tropical cyclones.

Subtropical Anticyclones and Associated Weather Conditions

• location of the high-pressure cells that affect South Africa;
• general characteristics of these high-pressure cells;
• anticyclonic air circulation around South Africa, and its influence on weather and climate;
• travelling disturbances associated with anticyclonic circulation: moisture front, line thunderstorms, coastal low pressure systems and South African berg winds; and
• reading and interpreting satellite images and synoptic weather maps that illustrate weather associated with subtropical anticyclonic conditions.

Valley Climates

• the micro-climate of valleys (the effect of the slope aspect);
• development of anabatic and katabatic winds, inversions, frost pockets and radiation fog; and
• the influence of local climates on human activities such as settlement and farming.

Urban Climates

• reasons for differences between rural and urban climates;
• urban heat islands – causes and effects;
• concept of pollution domes – causes and effects; and
• strategies to reduce the heat island effect.

Drainage Systems in South Africa

• important concepts: drainage basin, catchment area, river system, watershed, tributary, river mouth, source, confluence, water table, surface run-off and groundwater;
• types of rivers: permanent, periodic, episodic and exotic;
• drainage patterns: dendritic, trellis, rectangular, radial, centripetal, deranged and parallel;
• drainage density;
• use of topographic maps to identify stream order and density; and
• discharge of a river: laminar and turbulent flow.

Fluvial Processes

• river profiles: transverse profile, longitudinal profile and their relationship to different stages of a river:
• identification and description of fluvial landforms: meanders, oxbow lakes, braided streams, floodplain, natural leveé, waterfall, rapids and delta;
• river grading;
• rejuvenation of rivers: reasons and resultant features, such as knick point, terraces and incised meanders;
• river capture (stream piracy): the concepts of abstraction and river capture; features associated with river capture (captor stream, captured stream, misfit stream, elbow of capture, wind gap); and
• superimposed and antecedent drainage patterns.

Catchment and River Management

• importance of managing drainage basins and catchment areas;
• impact of people on drainage basins and catchment areas; and
• case study of one catchment area management strategy in South Africa.

Mapwork Techniques

• Reading and interpreting synoptic weather maps, satellite images and other weather and climate-related data;
• map and photo interpretation – includes reading and analysis of physical and constructed features; and
• applying map-reading skills to maps and photos.

Topographic Maps

• contours and landforms;
• cross sections;
• direction: magnetic north, true north and magnetic declination;
• gradient;
• intervisibility; and
• grid referencing.

Aerial Photographs and Orthophoto Maps

• interpreting vertical aerial photographs;
• orthophoto maps – identifying features; and
• comparing an orthophoto map with a topographic map.

Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

• examination of GIS information for different catchment areas; and
• developing a “paper GIS” from existing maps, photographs or other records on tracing paper.

Study of Settlements

• concept of settlement;
• site and situation;
• rural and urban settlements; and
• settlement classification according to size, complexity, pattern and function.

Rural Settlements

• how site and situation affect the location of rural settlements;
• classification of rural settlements according to pattern and function;
• reasons for different shapes of settlements: round, linear, T-shaped and cross-road; and
• land use in rural settlements.

Rural Settlement Issues

• rural-urban migration;
• causes and consequences of rural depopulation on people and the economy;
• case study that illustrates the effects of rural depopulation and strategies to address them; and
• social justice issues in rural areas, such as access to resources and land reform.

Urban Settlements

• the origin and development of urban settlements – urbanisation of the world’s population;
• how site and situation affect the location of urban settlements; and
• classification of urban settlements according to function, such as central places, trade and transport, break of bulk points, specialised cities, junction towns and gateway towns or gap towns.

Urban Hierarchies

• the concepts of urban hierarchy, central place, threshold population, the sphere of influence and range of goods;
• lower and higher-order functions and services; and
• lower and higher-order centres.

Urban Structure and Patterns

• internal structure and patterns of urban settlements: land use zones; the concept of the urban profile; and factors influencing the morphological structure of a city;
• models of urban structure, such as the multiple-nuclei model, the modern American-western city, the Third World city and the South African city; and
• changing urban patterns and land use in South African cities.

Urban Settlement Issues

• recent urbanisation patterns in South Africa;
• urban issues related to rapid urbanisation: lack of planning, housing shortage, overcrowding, traffic congestion and problems with service provision;
• the growth of informal settlements and associated issues: case studies from the world and South Africa; and
• case studies that show how selected urban areas in South Africa are managing urban challenges, and handling environmental, economic, and social justice concerns.

Mapwork Skills

• applying map skills and techniques: scale, contours and cross-sections; and
• map and photo interpretation: including reading and analysis of physical and constructed features.

Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

• GIS concepts: remote-sensing and resolution;
• spatial and attribute data; vector and raster data;
• data standardisation, data sharing and data security;
• data manipulation: data integration, buffering, querying and statistical analysis; application of GIS by government and the private sector, relate to weather and settlement topics above;
• developing a “paper GIS” from existing maps, photographs or other records on layers of tracing paper.

Structure of the Economy

• economic sectors (primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary);
• economic sectors’ contribution to the South African economy: value and employment; and
• use of statistical and graphical information.

Agriculture

• contribution of agriculture to the South African economy;
• the role of small-scale farmers and large-scale farmers;
• main products produced: home market and export market;
• factors that favour and hinder agriculture in South Africa, such as climate, soil, land ownership and trade;
• the importance of food security in South Africa – influencing factors; and
• case studies related to food security in South Africa.

Mining

• contribution of mining to the South African economy;
• significance of mining to the development of South Africa;
• factors that favour and hinder mining in South Africa; and
• a case study of one of South Africa’s main minerals in relation to the above points.

Secondary and Tertiary Sectors

• contribution of secondary and tertiary sectors to the South African economy;
• types of industries, such as heavy, light, raw material orientated, market-orientated, footloose industries, ubiquitous industries and bridge (break of the bulk point) industries;
• factors influencing industrial development in South Africa, such as raw materials, labour supply, transport infrastructure, political intervention, competition and trade; and
• South Africa’s industrial regions Gauteng (PWV), Durban-Pinetown, Port Elizabeth-Uitenhage, South-western Cape
• factors influencing their location
• main industrial activities.(Case studies from South Africa to illustrate the above)

Strategies for Industrial Development

• overview of apartheid and post-apartheid industrial development strategies;
• concept and distribution of Industrial Development Zones (IDZs);
• case studies of two Spatial Development Initiatives (SDIs); and
• issues associated with industrial centralisation and decentralisation.

Informal Sector

• concept and characteristics of informal sector employment;
• reasons for high informal sector employment in South Africa;
• challenges facing South Africa’s informal sector
• (Case studies to illustrate the above in the South African context)

Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

• examination of a selection of satellite images;
• GIS concepts: remote sensing and resolution;
• spatial and attribute data; vector and raster data;
• data standardisation, data sharing and data security;
• data manipulation: data integration, buffering, querying and statistical analysis; and
• developing a “paper GIS” from existing maps, photographs or other records on tracing paper

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