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Function Of Vitamin C In The Body
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Health Benefits Of Vitamin C Supplements
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Volker Elste
Received: 14 March 2017 / Revised: 4 May 2017 / Accepted: 10 May 2017 / Published: 16 May 2017
Essential Vitamins And Their Functions
Determining Vitamin C intake recommendations remains a challenge, as an appropriate functional parameter has not yet been agreed upon. In this report, we review the emerging evidence for neutrophil motility as a potential marker of vitamin C requirements and compare the results with other approaches. A recent in vitro study showed that adequate levels of vitamin C are required for this function to function optimally, as measured by chemotaxis and chemokinesis. In a human study, neutrophil motility was optimal at ≥250 mg/day. Interestingly, a Cochrane review showed a significant reduction in the duration of cold episodes with regular use of vitamin C in a similar range. In addition, it was shown that at a plasma level of 75 µmol/L, which is achieved with a vitamin C intake of ≥200 mg/day, the incidence of cardiovascular disease was the lowest. This evidence suggests that a general intake of 200 mg of vitamin C per day would be recommended for adults, which can be achieved through a varied diet. However, further studies are needed to investigate the utility of neutrophil motility as a marker of vitamin C requirements.
Vitamin C is an essential micronutrient. Since humans cannot produce it, the daily amount needed to ensure adequate intake is defined in dietary reference values established in many countries around the world. The basic principle of determining dietary reference values for vitamin C, as well as other essential micronutrients, has changed over the last decades from merely preventing deficiency syndromes to maintaining or even improving human health and ultimately reducing the risk of non-communicable diseases. 1]. Scurvy—the clinical manifestation of vitamin C deficiency—develops with long-term intakes of less than 10 mg per day [2]. Although very little vitamin C is needed to prevent an apparent deficiency, the challenge is determining the daily intake needed to maintain adequate health, given the many metabolic processes in which vitamin C is involved.
In particular, the role of vitamin C in human immune defense is an area of extensive research. However, the heterogeneity of study designs and the variability or even inconsistency of results make it difficult to use these data as a basis for routine reference values. In the past, they were considered insufficient to reliably estimate vitamin C requirements in apparently healthy individuals. The fact that vitamin C actively accumulates in leukocytes, resulting in concentrations up to 20 times higher in neutrophils than in plasma, emphasizes its important role in immune defense. Agencies such as the Institute of Medicine (IOM) in North America used near peak neutrophil concentrations with minimal urinary loss to derive vitamin C reference values [1]. This approach used the vitamin C intake required to near-saturate vitamin C concentrations in neutrophils to establish daily reference values.
Additional evidence has recently emerged regarding the functional capacity of neutrophils in relation to vitamin C concentrations in vitro [3] and uptake in humans [4]. The purpose of this contribution is to review the potential of neutrophil motility as a potential marker to determine vitamin C intake requirements in light of these recent findings. We will also discuss current vitamin C intake levels and how to achieve an adequate intake.
Essential Role Of Vitamin C And Zinc In Child Immunity And Health
Vitamin C can exist in the form of L-ascorbic acid and the oxidized form L-dehydroascorbic acid, both of which are essential for many vital functions (Figure 1). Humans, as well as some other species such as monkeys, guinea pigs, some fish species and birds, have lost L-gulonolactone oxidase, the enzyme that catalyzes the final step of vitamin C synthesis, which makes them dependent on large amounts of vitamin C from the diet [5 , 6].
Due to its reducing power, vitamin C mainly acts as an antioxidant [7] or as a cofactor in enzymatic reactions [5]. As an antioxidant, it scavenges free radicals such as reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species by converting them into less reactive molecules [8]. Through this mechanism, vitamin C protects proteins, lipids and nucleic acids, and thus the body as a whole, from oxidative damage. Thanks to its antioxidant function, it helps, for example, to protect the skin from UV radiation [9, 10] and is able to process other antioxidants such as vitamin E [11, 12, 13]. In doing so, it helps prevent oxidation of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and protects cellular lipids from peroxidation [12], thus essential for proper endothelial function. In addition, vitamin C increases the bioavailability of iron by reducing it to the ferrous form, which is the only form that can be absorbed in the gut [14, 15]. It also increases the solubility of iron in the stomach and duodenum and reduces the chance of iron being affected by iron absorption inhibitors [16].
As an essential cofactor of iron- and copper-dependent enzymes, vitamin C is involved as an electron donor in several catalytic redox reactions [5]: it helps catalyze the synthesis of L-carnitine from L-lysine, which plays an important role. important role in energy production through ß-oxidation in mitochondria [17, 18, 19]. However, its nature is controversial in this reaction because it can be replaced by glutathione [20]. Vitamin C is also required for the synthesis of the catecholamine noradrenaline, a hormone and neurotransmitter, from dopamine by the enzyme dopamine β-monooxygenase [21]. In addition, alpha-amidating monooxygenase requires it to increase the stability and activity of peptide hormones such as oxytocin and vasopressin [22]. Vitamin C also plays a role in hypoxia-inducible factor-1 alpha synthesis [23] and is involved in tyrosine metabolism [24].
The vitamin C-dependent enzymes proline hydroxylase and lysine hydroxylase are essential for the synthesis of the proteoglycan collagen, a major connective tissue molecule found in, for example, bone, periodontium, cartilage, skin, ligaments, tendons and blood vessels. [25, 26]. Impaired collagen production caused by low vitamin C intake for several weeks causes symptoms typical of scurvy, such as bleeding gums with tooth loss, bone abnormalities, and weak blood vessels. This eventually leads to vasomotor instability and open wounds. Bone formation and remodeling requires not only minerals, but also the organic matrix, which contains up to 90% collagen produced by osteoblasts. Vitamin C deficiency will cause bone loss or reduced bone formation [27, 28, 29]. In addition, adequate vitamin C is necessary for wound healing, as it is essential for fibroblast maturation, cross-linking between collagen fibers and angiogenesis [30, 31], and thus also has a positive effect on pressure ulcers and burns [32].
Everything You Should Know About Vitamin C For Kids
In addition, vitamin C is a cofactor of the rate-limiting enzyme of bile acid synthesis, which can also enhance the expression of LDL receptors in hepatocytes, thereby reducing blood LDL levels [ 33 , 34 ]. A recent review showed a significant reduction in blood lipids after vitamin C supplementation in subpopulations with dyslipidemia or low vitamin C at baseline [35]. This is consistent with its positive effects on a healthy cardiovascular system, reducing the incidence of coronary heart disease [34] and stroke [36]. Its antioxidant effect reduces oxidative stress and improves endothelial function by affecting nitric oxide retention and production. Nitric oxide is a signaling molecule that activates endothelial and smooth muscle cells that increase vasodilation, thereby reducing blood pressure and preventing cardiovascular disease (CVD) [37]. Recent meta-analyses confirm this [38, 39], showing this vitamin
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