Stages Of The Cell Cycle In Order – The cell Cycle is an ordered sequence of events that includes cell growth and cell division that produce two new daughter cells. Cells on the cell division pathway proceed through a series of well-timed and carefully regulated steps of growth, DNA replication, and division that produce two identical (clones) cells. There are two important phases in the cell cycle: the interphase and the Mitotic Phase (Figure 1). During the hiatus, the cell grows and the DNA is replicated. During the mitotic phase, the replicated DNA and cytoplasmic contents are separated, and the cell divides.
Figure 1. The cell cycle consists of interphase and mitotic phase. During the hiatus, the cell proliferates and the nuclear DNA is replicated. Interphase follows the mitotic phase. During the mitotic phase, duplicated chromosomes are separated and divided into daughter nuclei. The cytoplasm usually divides as well, resulting in two daughter cells.
Stages Of The Cell Cycle In Order
During hiatus, the cell undergoes normal growth processes while also preparing for cell division. For a cell to transition from interphase to the mitotic phase, several intrinsic and extrinsic conditions must be met. The three phases of the interface are called G
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At this stage, the cell is quite active at the biochemical level. Cell chromosomes are assembling the building blocks of DNA and associated proteins as well as accumulating sufficient energy reserves to complete the task of replicating each chromosome.
During interphase, nuclear DNA remains in a semi-condensed chromatin arrangement. In S phase, DNA replication can proceed by a mechanism that results in the formation of identical pairs of DNA molecules—sister chromatids—that are tightly attached to the centromeric region. The centrosome is duplicated during S phase. The two centrosomes give rise to the mitotic spindle, the apparatus that directs the movement of chromosomes during mitosis. At the center of each animal cell, the animal cell’s centrosomes are attached to a pair of rod-like objects, the centrioles, which are at right angles to each other. Centrioles help regulate cell division. Centrioles are not present in the centrosomes of other eukaryotic species such as plants and most fungi.
During the phase, the cell replenishes its energy reserves and synthesizes proteins necessary for chromosome manipulation. Some cell organelles are duplicated, and the cytoskeleton is removed to provide resources for the mitotic phase. Additional cell growth may occur during G
. Final preparations for the mitotic phase must be completed before the cell can enter the first phase of mitosis.
Cell Cycle: Definition, Phases, Regulation, Checkpoints
The mitotic phase is a multiphase phase during which duplicated chromosomes are aligned, separated, and transferred into two new, identical daughter cells. The first part of the mitotic phase is called karyokinesis, or nuclear division. The second part of the mitotic phase, called cytokinesis, is the physical separation of cytoplasmic components into two daughter cells.
Karyokinesis, also known as mitosis, is divided into a series of phases—prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase—resulting in the division of the cell nucleus (Figure 2). Karyokinesis is also called mitosis.
Figure 2. Karyokinesis (or mitosis) is divided into five phases—prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. The following images were taken by fluorescence microscopy (hence, black background) of cells artificially stained with fluorescent dyes: blue fluorescence indicates DNA (chromosomes) and green fluorescence indicates microtubules (spindle apparatus). (Credit “mitosis drawing”: work modification by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal; credit “micrographs”: work modification by Roy Van Hesbein; credit “cytokines micrograph”: Wadsworth Center/New York State Department of Health; scale bar data mat from Russell)
During prophase, the “first phase,” the nuclear envelope begins to separate into small vesicles, and membrane-bound organelles (such as the Golgi complex or Golgi apparatus, and the endoplasmic reticulum) disintegrate and move toward the cell periphery. . The nucleus disappears (disperses). Centrosomes begin to move to opposite poles of the cell. The microtubules that form the mitotic spindle grow between the centrosomes, pushing them further apart as the microtubule fibers elongate. Sister chromatids begin to coil more tightly with the help of condensin proteins and are visible under a light microscope.
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Figure 3. During prometaphase, mitotic spindle microtubules attach to each sister chromatid from the opposite pole into a kinetochore. In anaphase, the bonds between sister chromatids break, and microtubules pull the chromosomes to opposite poles.
During prometaphase, the “first transformation phase,” many processes that began in prophase continue. Remnants of the nuclear envelope. The mitotic spindle continues to develop as more microtubules accumulate and extend the length of the anterior nuclear region. Chromosomes become more condensed and separated. Each sister chromatid forms a protein structure called a kinetochore in the centromeric region (Figure 3). Proteins of the kinetochore attract and bind the mitotic spindle microtubules. As the spindle microtubules extend from the centrosomes, some of them come into contact with the microtubules and are firmly attached to the kinetochores. Once a mitotic fiber attaches to a chromosome, the chromosome is oriented until the kinetochores of the sister chromatids face opposite poles. Finally, all sister chromatids are attached to microtubules from opposite poles by their kinetochores. Spindle microtubules that do not engage chromosomes are called polar microtubules. These microtubules overlap each other between the two poles and contribute to cell elongation. Astral microtubules are located near the poles, assist in spindle orientation, and are required for the regulation of mitosis.
During metaphase, the “transformation phase,” all the chromosomes line up in a plane called the metaphase plate, or equatorial plane, between the two poles of the cell. The sister chromatids are still tightly bound together by the cohesin protein. At this time, the chromosomes are increasingly condensed.
During anaphase, the “up phase”, the cohesin proteins are degraded, and the sister chromatids separate at the centromere. Each chromatid, now called a chromosome, is rapidly drawn toward the centrosome, to which its microtubule is attached. The cell becomes visibly elongated (oval-shaped) as the polar microtubules slide against each other at the metaphase plate where they overlap.
The Cell Cycle And Mitosis Ppq
During telophase, the “distance phase,” the chromosomes reach opposite poles and begin to elongate (seize), in a relaxed chromatin structure. Mitotic spindles are depolymerized into tubulin monomers that will be used to assemble cytoskeletal components for each daughter cell. Nuclear envelopes form around the chromosomes, and nucleosomes appear in the nuclear region.
Figure 4. During cytokinesis in animal cells, a ring of actin filaments forms at the metaphase plate. As the ring fuses, a gap is formed, which divides the cell into two parts. In plant cells, Golgi vesicles assemble at the pre-metaphase plate, forming a phragmoplast. A cell plate formed by the fusion of phragmoplast vesicles extends from the center toward the cell walls, and the membrane of the vesicles forms a plasma membrane that divides the cell into two compartments.
Cytokinesis, or “cell motion,” is the second major step of the mitotic phase, during which cell division is completed by the physical separation of cytoplasmic components into two daughter cells. Division is not complete until parts of the cell have divided and completely separated into two daughter cells. Although the steps of mitosis are similar for most eukaryotes, the process of cytokinesis is quite different for eukaryotes that have cell walls, such as plant cells.
In cells such as animal cells that lack cell walls, cytokinesis follows the initiation of apoptosis. A contractile ring composed of actin filaments forms within the plasma membrane at the early metaphase plate. Actin filaments pull the cell’s equator inward, forming a fissure. This crack, or “crack,” is called a gap. The cycle is triggered by the contraction of the actin ring, and finally the membrane splits into two parts (Figure 4).
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In plant cells, a new cell wall must be formed between the daughter cells. During interphase, the Golgi apparatus collects enzymes, structural proteins, and glucose molecules before they are broken down into vesicles and diffused into the dividing cell. During telophase, these Golgi vesicles are transported on microtubules to form the phragmoplast (a vesicular structure) at the metaphase plate. There, vesicles fuse and move toward the cell walls from the center; This structure is called the cell plate. As more vesicles fuse, the cell plate expands until it merges with the cell wall at the cell membrane. Enzymes use the glucose stored between the membrane layers to make new cell walls. The Golgi membrane becomes part of the plasma membrane on the other side of the new cell wall (Figure 4).
Not all cells follow the classic cell cycle model, in which a newly formed daughter cell immediately enters the interphase preparatory phase, closely followed by the mitotic phase. In the cell
Phases are not actively preparing to divide. A cell is in a quiescent (dormant) stage when the cell exits the cell cycle. Some cells enter G
. Other cells that never or rarely divide, such as adult heart muscle and nerve cells, live in G.
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Background: A prepared microscope slide showing a blastula cross section
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