The proposed study endeavours to explore Karnad’s socio-political and cultural contribution through Naga-Mandala and how it can be claimed as a subaltern and feminist literary text. The researcher also attempts to have the research study to be exploratory and analytical in nature by incorporating the literary and critical theories of feminist literary criticism focusing particularly on subalternization and quest for women’s emancipation.
The researcher aims to conduct an exquisite and critical sociological study of the text Naga-Mandala utilizing a contemporary and postmodern approach to it. It also attempts to bring out the problems and challenges largely faced by twentieth century Indian women. Also how Naga-Mandala falls under the category of subaltern and feminist literary text. The study with the aid of feminist literary critical theory examines the patriarchal structure in Naga-Mandala and exposes how women are considered ‘second-sex’ in the play. It will also enlighten the society to meditate on the socio-political issues and thus the needs of the society are discussed and analyzed. The views through the proposed plan of research study will definitely endorse the argument.
The proposed research study attempts to prove Naga-Mandala as a subaltern and feminist text highlighting the male-chauvinism and gender-bias of the patriarchal dominant Indian society under the light of the cultural aspects of India.
The meaning of diversity in Indian society is also closely examined in the research study. It means the collective differences, that is, differences which mark off one group of people from another. These differences may be of any sort: biological, religious, linguistic etc. The geo-political unity, the institution of marriage, tradition of interdependence, caste system and composite culture are all bonds of unity underlying all this diversity. However, the hierarchy of Indian society alienates the subalterns and also put them aside not letting them climb the social ladder. Every subaltern text is primarily concerned with socio-political aspects that lead to marginalized section of people.
Similarly, feminist literary criticism brings out the suppression of women and the discrimination against them. The process of ‘othering’ underprivileged or objectifying women goes hand in hand. Most of the downtrodden community seem to be homogenizing the sensitive fact that they are mere puppets in the hands of mainstream society. Such stereotyped images make them out to be quite submissive and docile. Quest for identity, equality and female emancipation are the predominant themes discussed in Feminist Literary texts. The major themes found in both feminist and subaltern texts are loneliness, subjugation, resilience, resistance and oppression.
The research study focuses on Naga-Mandala which presents the woman’s understanding of the patriarchal and tyrannical society around her. Since Girish Karnad’s plays predominantly adopt myths and also non-naturalistic technique of magic realism, there is of course, ambiguity and vagueness in the portrayal of womanhood and marginalized sections of society. The play Naga-Mandala can be evaluated in line with the gender discourse of contemporary times only through thematic -textual analysis. Although the research study is limited only to the play Naga-Mandala, reference is also made to other texts such as A.K. Ramanujan’s oral tales which have likely to enhance the study. The researcher restricts the study within the framework of the feminist and subaltern theories. The study does not seek to answer the contemporary question of how women came to lose their position in society and also what would lead to the transition of women from pliant beings to bold individuals in future. It also does not focus on the changing patterns of Indian culture in twentieth century. The study books are also limited only to Indian critics and other research fellows. This is because the researcher assumes that it would be bias free if Indian authors who are having first account experiences of the homeland are explored. The gender discourse in feminism writings in India and the interrelatedness of the feminine tale and the Indian narrative also greatly influenced the study. In Naga-Mandala, the researcher pays attention to the different forms of oppression the playwright depicts and how he subverts patriarchy. The researcher also attempts to investigate the cause for the vision of the female character, Kurudavva in the play to end oppression and suffering of Rani.
The proposed research study is focussed on Primary Research- to define the literary and sociological concepts and terms, to analyse the contemporary social issues and illustrate them through the play Naga-Mandala of Girish Karnad. The researcher has also made use of books, articles, journals and peer reviews, historical and electronic documents to undergo Secondary Research for assessing, understanding and interpreting the primary sources of research. Documentation is strictly adhered to MLA Handbook for the Writers of Research Papers (Seventh Edition). Stella Maris College Library and Connemara Library; online academic databases such as JSTOR, EBSCO, Questia; Girish Karnad’s personal blog etc have been used while conducting research.
The most renowned Indian playwright Girish Raghunath Karnad’s play Naga-Mandala: Play with a Cobra (1990) is a dramatic transmutation of two oral tales of Karnataka. His plays prove his mettle in folk theatre convention and indigenous culture and tradition. Naga-Mandala is essentially based on the orally transmitted stories he heard from the writer of his times, Professor A.K. Ramanujan. Karnad, belonging to the generation of eminent dramatists such as Dharamveer Bharati, Mohan Rakesh and Vijay Tendulker drew inspiration from Western literature and came up with the themes of socio-political and cultural issues. He has been rightly recognized as a playwright of existentialism, feminism, subalternity, casteism, humanism etc. Most of his plays ranging from Yayati to Wedding Album are a testimony to it.
Naga-Mandala deals with oppression and subjugation of women in patriarchal and conventional Indian society. The position of Rani in the story of Naga-Mandala can be viewed from a dual point of view wherein she finds dual personality in her husband, Appanna. He is a total stranger when he meets her during daytime and at night he turns out to be a loving husband. Karnad uses this fictitious attitude of the husband to bring out the cause and effects of disjointed encounters in human relationships. And thereby to juxtapose the bipolar concepts and dichotomous classification of feminist literary criticism, caste or Varna discrimination of the theory of subalternization and the culture of Indian society.
Feminist criticism has the major object of exposing the mechanism of patriarchy. In terms of theory feminism draws upon other theories like liberal humanism, structuralism, Marxism and post-structuralism. Feminist criticism uses the idea of Lacan’s psychoanalysis, Derridian deconstruction and Foucault’s notion of power. Universally speaking, the sociology of gender examines how society influences our understandings and perception of differences between masculinity and femininity. It also, in turn, influences identity and social practices and power relationships. The images of male-established representations of women as stereotypes and exclusions coupled with the other sociological concepts of division, oppression, inequality and interiorized inferiority for women are seen in Naga-Mandala.
The position of women in contemporary India is complicated if compared to the western countries. The cultural history of ancient and Vedic India through the Hindu religious scriptures substantiates the elevated status of women as devis in temples. Apart from the holy positions given to them in religious institutions, the developmental status of ordinary Indian women is yet to be discussed. They have been forced to be subservient and naive in all that they go through.
Men and women are of course binary oppositions. And there is no man born not out of a woman. Thus woman acts a supreme creator though man is having a dormant role in the procreation. Karnad reverses these roles in Naga-Mandala by personifying the story created by the playwright (a man) as a woman. The role reversals can be read in such a way that a man can also be the creator of humankind like woman. The story itself becomes the narrator in Naga-Mandala and therefore has an independent existence. Through reading, retelling, reinterpretation and revisioning, the story has a long continuum life. V. Rangan states in “Myth and Romance in Naga-Mandala or their Subversion”, “A story is born and grows; it has life. Each story has an independent existence, and a distinctive character. All story tellers are ancient mariners cursed to keep the story alive” (201). Flames are other minor characters symbolic of torch bearer to pass on the knowledge received from Story. Karnad thus drives home the fact that a woman has also independent existence and should have the opportunity like the character Story to attain fame. Similarly, Rani’s role is also reversed from an object of oppression to the subject of divinity. Appanna’s indifferent attitude towards Rani is fully changed and he becomes a considerate husband.
Indian tradition dictates that women during their menstruation cycle are impure. On the contrary, young girls attaining puberty for the first time are considered as devis and are given celebrated status. The onset of puberty is also a call for the girl to enter into the institution of marriage, forcing her to leave the father’s house and move to her husband’s abode. The daughter’s marriage is a dream come true for every father and mother. But in certain poverty stricken households, weddings are not a matter of happiness but an alarm for misery. In the play Naga-Mandala, Rani is the only child for her parents. She is compelled to walk into marriage once “she reached womanhood” (253). The memories of her parents and the beautiful living she had at her father’s house make her sob. Rani’s “mother started shedding tears the day I [Rani] matured and was still crying when I [Rani] left with my husband” (259). The epiphany of the mother of a girl child when the girl ‘becomes’ a woman is expressed through her moaning. The mother clearly knows all the troubles her daughter has to go through as a woman. There is not even a single mention of what drove Rani’s parents to give her hand to Appanna. It seems the sole decision maker of Rani’s marriage is her father. The Story narrates, “Her fond father found her a suitable husband” (253). Rani therefore had not had a say on her marriage. She ended up marrying someone out of choices and interests. It is as explained in “The Changing Pattern of Age of Marriage among the Rural Women” by Sandeep Parmar that “Among the Hindus, marriage is ‘Kanyadan’ a pious act to be performed before puberty. High praise for the pro- puberty marriages in the Hindu tradition is the single fact which encouraged early marriages among the contemporary Brahmins” (308). Marriage is thus defined and used as a coercive tool to exploit and oppress women to the core. It also highlights the issue of mismatched marriages and child marriages prevalent in India, even now.
Rani is shown to be a typical naive, submissive and pious Indian rural woman. The name Rani is quite ironical for someone like her. At her home, she was known as Rani highlighting her position in her father’s house. The Story narrates “But she was an only daughter, so her parents called her Rani. Queen. Queen of the whole wide world” (253). Rani or queen enjoys a superior status and dominant power is invested within her. There is not even a single mention in the play that Appanna, the husband of Rani calls her by name. This clearly hints the downtrodden position Rani has been given by her husband. She is treated as a puppet in the hands of the conventional society strictly abiding the norms and conditions of it. Thus, she remains silenced and is one among the marginalized community. The question of her status as Rani or queen in the household is really challenging. Shobha Diwakar substantiates that the name Rani is sardonic as “she is not only denied conjugal happiness but is also treated like a prisoner and deprived of her rights as a human being” (73). Karnad has carefully chosen the name Rani to mock at the prejudiced and evil society who looks down upon women and treats them as dasis and not Ranis in general.
Similarly, the name adopted for the blind lady, Kurudavva is also quite thought-provoking. The only good hearted human beings seen in the play are Kurudavva and her son, Kappanna. Kurudavva acts as a motherly figure to Rani. The name Kurudavva renders an image of darkness and malevolence. Quite contrary to it, Kurudavva is the cause for Rani’s resurrection from darkness to light. Not even a single other character is seen to be helping out Rani in her downfall. The blind lady thus envisions and acts as an agent of change in Rani’s life. Kurudavva thus stands out separated from the other members of the community. Karnad thus asserts to mention that the real darkness is within the eyes of the prejudiced society and not Kurudavva.
The most important Dharmasastra of Hindus, the Manusmriti is regarded as the book of laws and every Hindu ought to be following the quotes written in it. In Manusmriti, the duties of women or wifely obligations, and caste system of India are portrayed in a shallow way within a rigid framework. Not a single mention of duties of man or husband to his wife is coded in Manusmriti. This orthodoxy of social and cultural regulations is strongly been criticized by feminists and social activists equally. Manusmriti states the responsibilities and role of wife. It overtly observes: “Though destitute of virtue, or seeking pleasure (elsewhere), or devoid of good qualities, (yet) a husband must be constantly worshipped as a god by a faithful wife” (Marwaha 55). The male protagonist Appanna in the play Naga-Mandala, is a true paradigm of the husband mentioned in Manusmriti. He neither pays attention to his wife nor is there with her in person. The dehumanizing treatment Rani undergoes in the household points out the hellish behaviour of Appanna. It seems Appanna “pays no attention to her, goes out, shuts the door, locks it from the outside and goes away. She runs to the door, pushes it, finds it locked, peers out of the barred window” (254). Yet, Rani keeps up the wifely duties by preparing food for her husband and waits for him day and night. A parallel line can be drawn between the ‘caged’ Rani and the poet persona of Maya Angelou’s poem I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings.
Till the end of the story, Rani treats Appanna as an ideal husband and worships him for his position in her life. At the same time, it is quite ironic to find out Rani entering into a bigamous situation. She tries to hide the true biological father of her child from her legal husband. Rani advises Naga to get into her hair and affirms, “This hair is the symbol of my wedded bliss. Live in there happily, forever” (300). This act of hers could be a way of escapism to keep up her standards in the society or to conceal the truth to have a better living with her husband. The dual climaxes brought in by Karnad gives an impression of the myopic assumptions, society have on women. The value structure of Indian society demands the women to be paragons of virtue like Sita, Savitri, Draupadi and Damayanti etc who have been chaste, dutiful, loyal women of solid wifely devotion whatever the temptation they have. Prabhati Mukherjee in “Theory on Ideal Womanhood states”:
“The basic tenets of stridharma were infidelity and loyalty with which a married woman served her husband and family. A woman who practised dharma as well as sahadharma (with her husband) was the best of all women. She must be kind even to an unkind and irate husband, obey him and must not cast eyes even upon a tree bearing the name of her husband” (12).
The society presumes that women should be loyal to their husbands at all odds and they might turn out to be disloyal under certain unavoidable circumstances. This is applicable not only to women alone but also to men. Karnad thus questions if there would ever be hundred percent innocence and loyalty in human relationships.
A cultural theme of the norm and guidelines states that women should be always under the control of man and her power should be subordinated to that of man. Manusmriti emphasizes this way of life of woman: “In childhood a female must be subjected to her father, in youth to her husband, when her lord is dead to her sons; a woman must never be independent” (Marwaha 55). In Naga-Mandala, the female characters are portrayed as dependant human beings on either their male counter-parts or their sons. Rani depends on her parents when she was a girl and relies her husband when she entered into wedlock. The old lady Kurudavva is also taken care of by her son, Appanna by carrying on his shoulders. However, none of the male characters in Naga-Mandala are fully dutiful and responsible in performing their obligations. Rani’s father, though a dormant character in the play gives an image of caring and affectionate father. But he is not seen to be appearing in the story when his daughter goes through post-marital trauma. It is as if he has forgotten her once she is married off. Karnad poses a question to the viewers of the play that if Rani’s father had considered Rani a burden pre and post marriage is challenging.
On the other hand, Appanna is seen to be a scheming, adamant and dominant figure. Rani is not only oppressed and subjugated but also downgraded infront of the village community by Appanna. She is certainly dependent on his husband in all that she does and blindly obeys all that he says. Rani does not even dare ask Appanna, his day and night change of behaviour and attitude towards her. A minimum amount of respect and dignity is not being seen from Appanna’s side. Appanna finds it difficult to accept the fact that he is going to father a child without being in a physical union with Rani. He is too insensitive and calls Rani a ‘whore’ though he himself sleeps with a concubine, forgetting and alienating his wife. Appanna insults the individuality of Rani by dragging “her into the streets” and picking “up a huge stone to throw on her” (285). Karnad thus portrays the character of Appanna as demeaning and gives him a shameful status of unrighteous and immoral man.
Likewise, Kappanna leaves his old mother and goes somewhere seeking out materialistic pleasures. Kurudavva does not have any relations other than her own son. But denying the love and affection of her, Kappanna “slipped from her hands and was gone” (291). The loving mother despite of her deformity wanders in search of her son. There is no sense of responsibility and devotion being seen in Kappanna. Therefore, it is apparent that the comment on the obligation of men in Manusmriti is strictly not followed. Manusmriti’s further remark on Indian woman, “By a girl, by a young woman, or even by an aged one, nothing must be done independently, even in her own house” (Marwaha 55) is for this reason ridiculous.
Naga-Mandala also deals with both male and female sexuality. Though fictitious in form, there is dichotomy between the love of Naga and Appanna towards Rani. The mendicant provided by Kurudavva to Rani is a cause for Naga to have a physical union with her. Naga takes the human form of Appanna only to be involved in a sexual intercourse with Rani. The serpent seems to know that taking the original form would not let its illicit wish come true. But Naga’s love for Rani is trustworthy when it behaves like a gentle man to her. P. Gopichand highlights the fact that marriage is a bond sealing the physical union of man and woman to beget children and establish a lineage. He further remarks: “Purusha and Prakriti thus ultimately come together by external forces that complete the circle of Yin and Yang. Rani, the puppet; the embodied prakriti, emerges victorious. Naga becomes the external force; the external stimuli that performs the conjugal right” (275).
At the same time, Karnad implicitly brings out the carnal desire of contemporary men and how they go to the extent of seducing another man’s possession. On the other hand, no such love- making instances are seen from Appanna’s part. It is a courtesan’s sexual love that drives him away from Rani. Rani is shown to be a pativrata in the entire play but Appanna invites condemn remarks.
Similarly, Kappanna also falls for a serpent lover abandoning his mother. Kurudavva assumes and exclaims if his son’s seducer would be “A temptress from beyond? A yaksha woman? Perhaps a snake woman?” and mourns that it is “not a human being” (291) for sure. Karnad thus tries to bridge the gap between this world and that world by putting the animate objects together. It is as explained by Savita Goel in “Girish Karnad’s Naga-Mandala: The Metaphor of Transformation”, “Through metamorphosis, Karnad inextricably intertwines the human and the non-human worlds interacting and entering into one another’s lives and becoming part of one another” (115).
Indian culture, like every other classic culture prefers male child to female child. A male child is the inheritor of the family and obliged to be continuing the custom and tradition of it. The role of the male child in performing the religious rituals and rites is also unavoidable. Neera Desai and Maithreyi Krishnaraj state that “The religious requirement of a son is an even more compelling reason for male preference. A son alone is qualified to carry on patrilineage, perform the rite of lighting the funeral pyre and propitiating the souls of agnatic ascendants through Shraddha” (173). In Naga-Mandala, Rani desires to perform the annual ritual of pinda-dhaan of the dead snake by her son. Rani says, “When we cremate this snake, the fire should be lit by your son” (298) and she elaborates “And every year on this day, our son should perform the rituals to commemorate its death” (298). Karnad concretes the Hindu religious beliefs and practices by bringing in such strange demand from the female protagonist.
The culture of India strongly believes that a woman is complete only once she attains her husband in physical union. She remains incomplete until she finds her better-half and settles down. Her quest for identity comes to an end thus. In “Mother Goddess in the Pre and Proto Historic Period”, Chandra Prasad Srivastava observes that “The wife is designated ardhangini- half of the body. This means husband and wife combined together to make one complete unit for all purposes” (20). Rani in Naga-Mandala goes through the traumatic incidents in order to realize her true identity as a wife and a mother. She undergoes an identity crisis unless Appanna accepts her as his own wife and openly admits his relationship with Rani. Naga is also in a dilemma due to its love, Rani. It is in a limbo between human world and animal world as it does not clearly knows if it is a human or animal now. The silent longing of Naga is not even recognized by Rani. Naga admits “Yes, that is it. A grass snake. A common reptile. That’s what I am and I had forgotten that. I thought I could become human” (296). Karnad infusing a living human heart into Naga, thus wants to emphasize the desire of Naga to live as a human with Rani and also the supremacy of human world.
Folklore is an important constituent of Indian culture. Normally, folk tales recount the stories from the perspectives of man and are primarily male-oriented. At the same time, good versus evil is the sole moral lesson every folk tale tries to render. A folk tale told from the first hand experience of women is barely explored. If at all seen, inner consciousness of them is not taken into account. A.K. Ramanujan discusses certain characteristics of the genre of women-centred tales and observes that “in female-oriented tales, the heroine is either already married or she is married early in the tale, or then the troubles begin” (226). Karnad should so as to be acknowledged for weaving a patriarchal folktale into a saga of emancipation of woman th India is known for Snake worship. Snake worship refers to the high status of snakes (nagas) in Hindu mythology. The Snake primarily represents rebirth, death and mortality, due to its casting of its skin and being symbolically reborn. Certain orthodox Hindu religion followers are of view that no one should kill Nagas intentionally and if accidentally killed, it should be cremated like a human being. Nagas play prominent roles in various legends and myths of Shesha, Vasuki, Kaliya, Manasa and Astika. Lord Shiva is also depicted wearing a serpent around his neck. This superior status given to Nagas in Hindu mythology is brought out by Karnad’s depiction of the test of chastity: Naga Ordeal. In Naga- Mandala, Rani’s innocence is proved by the equally heinous and terrifying act of pulling out Cobra from ant- hill and left unharmed. Rani vehemently proclaims: “Yes, my husband and this King Cobra. Except for these two, I have not touched any one of the male sex. Nor have I allowed any other male to touch me. If I lie, let the Cobra bite me” (292). P. Gopinchand comments that “The Naga, which is also referred to as the ‘kshetrapal’, thus protects Rani” (293). The blind faith in Naga Ordeal demonstrates the significance of Nagas among village people and even in contemporary rural India.
The oldest religion Hinduism has a large number of Devas and Devis. Apart from them, India has a tradition of worshipping mere human beings as God man and God woman. They sometimes claim to possess paranormal powers, such as the ability to heal, the ability to see or influence future events, and the ability to read minds. In Naga- Mandala too, the village folk gives a superior status for Rani admitting that “she is not a woman” (292) but “a divine being” (292). The Elders who looked down upon her questioning her chastity thinks Appanna to be “the chosen instrument for the revelation of her [Rani] divinity” (293).
Untouchability is an age-old alarming issue in India. Untouchables are relegated to the bottom of the Hindu caste hierarchy. Their traditional occupations include emptying village latrines, burying cow carcasses, and tanning animal hides. Thus, they perform the duties of scavenging, which are highly praised by Gandhiji as well. But none of the menials task they do give them due recognition in Indian society. Kancha Illaiah comments on the scavenging community in “Subaltern Scientists” that “If they too had been irrational and unscientific, and treated this task as polluting, the dead bodies would have rotted and would have become the source of deadly diseases” (29). In Naga- Mandala, there is subtle depiction of the untouchable caste. Appanna goes in search of “an Untouchable to bury the carcass” (280). Thus it also foregrounds that all the major characters in Naga-Mandala are part of mainstream society.
In a nutshell, Naga- Mandala is a tale of stigmatized identities of both men and women. Girish Karnad’s deliberate attempt to incorporate the technique of reversal of identities, magic realism and role shifts of Naga are the merits of the play. The efforts of the characters such as Rani, Kurudavva and Naga to escape from their marginal situation makes it a subaltern play read from a feminist perspective. The folkloric tradition, customs and rituals of Indian culture are also explored through the symbolism and supernaturalism of Naga in the play. Naga-Mandala is therefore an amalgamation of cultural theory of sociology and contemporary theories of literature.
Works Cited
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