Ancient Egypt an introduction

Discover the fascinating history of Ancient Egypt, from its rise to power to its eventual decline. This overview provides a comprehensive look at one of the world's most intriguing civilizations. 

In this article, we will discuss about the Egyptian civilization. Drawing the boundaries of ancient Egypt in time and space would be difficult and The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egyptian Civilization. To reconstruct the history of ancient Egypt.

The ancient civilization of Egypt began around 3100 BC, when King Menes united Upper and Lower Egypt into a single kingdom. This period, known as the Early Dynastic Period, saw the development of hieroglyphics, the construction of the first pyramids, and the establishment of a centralized government. Over the next several centuries, Egypt would become one of the most powerful and advanced civilizations in the world. 

The core of Egypt starts from the first cataract at Aswan to the Mediterranean Sea. The geography of Egypt serves as a corridor for the other cultures to enter. As in case of river valleys, the Egyptian civilization developed around the Nile River, extending to the desert across the Red Sea. Herodotus described Egypt as the gift of the Nile in the 5th century. As for the study of ancient Egypt, the sources are mainly the archaeological and visual remains. Written records are available only from the second millennium BC. The sources for the study of ancient Egypt are mostly the artifacts, architectures, organic remains, literature mostly preserved cautiously.

Ancient Egypt bronze age

Importance of the Nile river to ancient Egypt

 Flooded every year,  Provided fertile soil for crops when the “silt”, from the bottom of the river bed, full of vitamins and minerals would flood the earth, Was the “Lifeline” for Egypt, Transportation Route, Used for Irrigation, Flows south to north, opposite of every other river, Mouth = “Delta”

The Important Uses of the Nile

Uses: Drinking & Bathing, Agriculture, & Transportation

The Egyptians had 3 seasons, based on the river.

 Inundation: June - October - SHAIT

•  time of rising flood waters, farmers had time to build (pyramids and other projects)

Emergence: November - February- PIRUIT

•   the return of the water to the river,  planted crops & trapped water for irrigation

Drought: March - June - SHEMU

•  Harvest time (picking the crops)

Ancient Egypt Nile river valley civilization

The ancient civilization of Egypt originated in the land of Punt, in Eastern Africa in the 3rd millennium BC. It appeared in the Paleolithic age in North east Africa in c 400000 BC, but there was no settlement in the Nile valley due to dry climate. By c.10000-5000BC, the valley was inhabited by nomads who lived on hunting and fishing. Around 6000 BC, cultivation was taken up by the people of the valley. The earliest settlers in the Nile valley were the hunter gatherers who used stone tools. The land was cultivated, grazed etc. as evidences prove it. However, due to climate change the fertile plain was transformed to a desert.

The historical records of ancient Egypt begin with Egypt as a unified state, which occurred sometime around 3150 BC. The Egyptian culture, customs, art expression, architecture, and social structure were closely tied to religion. They were remarkably stable, and changed little over a period of nearly 3000 years. There have been debates on the African background of the Egyptian culture with a greater emphasis on Africa’s contribution. However, ancient Egypt was in Africa but not clearly of Africa. The ancient Egyptian civilization lasted for about 30 centuries, before it became a part of the Roman Empire.

Geographically, the Nile River remains the most fascinating feature of Egyptian history as this river divides the country into two parts, Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt and thereby, enriching the rich cultural heritage between these two regions. For some time, the Egyptian civilization is said to have begun, when the King (or Pharaoh) Menes unified the separate Upper and Lower Kingdoms along the Nile in 3100 B.C.E. Though both the areas, Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt, had cultural differences, yet under the Dynastic period, both were ruled as one kingdom.

The Rise of Ancient Egypt: From Pre-Dynastic Period to the Old Kingdom.

The history of ancient Egypt is divided into several periods, beginning with the pre-dynastic period around 5000 BCE and ending with the Ptolemaic period in 30 BCE. The Old Kingdom, which lasted from around 2686 BCE to 2181 BCE, was a time of great prosperity and stability for ancient Egypt. During this period, the pharaohs built the pyramids at Giza and established a centralized government that controlled much of the Nile Valley. The Old Kingdom also saw the development of hieroglyphics, the construction of monumental temples, and the establishment of a complex religious system.

The Early Dynastic Period and the Unification of Egypt.

The ancient civilization of Egypt began around 3100 BCE with the Early Dynastic Period. During this time, the country was divided into two regions, Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt, each with its own ruler. However, around 3100 BCE, King Narmer of Upper Egypt conquered Lower Egypt and unified the country under his rule. This event marked the beginning of the Old Kingdom and the start of the pharaonic era. The pharaohs were considered divine rulers and were responsible for maintaining Ma'at, the concept of balance and order in the universe. The Old Kingdom was a time of great prosperity and achievement, with the construction of monumental structures such as the pyramids at Giza.

The Old Kingdom and the Great Pyramids.

The Old Kingdom was a time of great achievement for the ancient civilization of Egypt. The pharaohs of this era were responsible for the construction of some of the most impressive structures in human history, including the Great Pyramids at Giza. These massive structures were built as tombs for the pharaohs and their consorts, and were designed to protect their bodies and belongings for eternity. The construction of the pyramids required immense resources and labor, and was a testament to the power and wealth of the pharaohs of the Old Kingdom. However, the prosperity of this era would not last forever, and the decline of the Old Kingdom would eventually lead to the collapse of the pharaonic era.

The Middle Kingdom and the Expansion of Egypt.

The Middle Kingdom was a time of expansion and stability for the ancient civilization of Egypt. Pharaohs of this era focused on building infrastructure and expanding trade routes, which led to increased wealth and prosperity. The pharaohs also worked to improve the lives of their subjects, building irrigation systems and public works projects. However, the Middle Kingdom was not without its challenges. The Hyksos, a group of foreign invaders, took advantage of Egypt's weakened state and conquered the northern part of the country. This event marked the end of the Middle Kingdom and the beginning of the Second Intermediate Period.

The New Kingdom ancient Egypt

The New Kingdom, which lasted from around 1550 BCE to 1070 BCE, was another period of great prosperity and power for ancient Egypt. The pharaohs of the New Kingdom, such as Hatshepsut, Thutmose III, and Ramses II, expanded Egypt's borders, built monumental temples and palaces, and established a powerful military. However, the New Kingdom also saw the rise of foreign invasions and internal strife, which eventually led to the decline of ancient Egypt.

Archaeological

1. Buildings • Pyramids • Temples • Tombs • Royal Palaces • Sphinx • Memorials

2. Paintings and Engravings 3. Statues 4. Weapons 5. Ornaments 6. Other artefacts

Literary 

1. Religious and Historical texts 2. Literary and mathematical works 3. Scientific works 4. Letters 5. Accounts 6. Public and private works 7. The Old Testament 8. Accounts of Herodotus 9. Accounts of Manetho 8. Rosetta Stone.

The Golden Age of the Pharaohs.

The Golden Age of the Pharaohs is considered to be one of the most prosperous periods in ancient Egyptian history. It was a time of great expansion, with the pharaohs conquering neighboring lands and establishing a vast empire. During this time, the Egyptians also made significant advancements in art, architecture, and technology. The construction of the Great Pyramid of Giza, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, is a testament to the incredible achievements of this period.

The king or ruler of Egypt was called a Pharaoh. The Pharaoh was seen as a god.,  Everyone worked for the pharaoh.,  When he died, the pharaoh was mummified and buried in a beautiful chamber along with his belongings. Like all civilizations, Egyptians had the need for laws. The Pharaoh was the supreme judge of what was right and wrong under the law.

Pharaohs Rule As Gods

•   Economy- Pharaoh collected a portion of crops for taxes, Trade was the way in which Egyptians were paid for their services
•  Government- Pharaoh appointed powerful local leaders called governors, then the Governors collected taxes and served as local judges, And made sure local flood waters were shared equally
• Religion- believed that the Pharaoh was the child of Ra, the sun-god, that Pharaoh gave life to Egypt & its people, worshipped the Pharaoh
•   Pharaohs cause sun to rise, Nile to flood, crops to grow
•   King Menes: United United Upper and Lower Egypt, King Tut: Much of what we know today is due to the discovery of his elaborate tomb!

Ancient Egypt politics and government

Evidence of some kind of political organization is found in the Nile River Valley. However, a direct political organization has not been discovered for the early period. The early Egyptian period can be broadly divided into- the Pyramid Age (3400-2500 BC), the Feudal Age (to about 1800 BC) and the New Empire (1580-1150 BC).

The two main centres of political development were- the Delta Region and Upper Egypt. During the Pyramid Age, the government was autocratic and bureaucratic with the Pharaoh as the supreme power.

Central to the Egyptian view of kingship was the concept of ‘maat’, loosely translated as ‘justice and truth’ but meaning more than legal fairness and factual accuracy. It referred to the ideal state of the universe and was personified as the goddess Maat. The king was responsible for its appearance, an obligation that acted as a constraint on the arbitrary exercise of power.

The pharaoh ruled by divine decree. In the early years, his sons and other close relatives acted as his principal advisers and aides. By the Fourth Dynasty, there was a grand vizier or chief minister, who was at first a prince of royal blood and headed every government department.

The country was divided into nomes or districts (“sepat” as known in ancient Egypt) administered by nomarchs or governors. We can trace this division to the pre-Dynastic period (before 3100 BC). Hereditary offices and the possession of property turned the officials into landed gentry. From the middle of the Fifth Dynasty can be traced the beginnings of a feudal state with an increase in the power of these provincial lords, particularly in Upper Egypt.

The Old Kingdom ended when the central administration collapsed in the late Sixth Dynasty. In the absence of central authority, the hereditary landowners took control and assumed responsibility for maintaining order in their own areas. The manors of their estates turned into miniature courts, and Egypt splintered into a number of feudal states. This period of decentralized rule and confusion lasted from the Seventh through the Eleventh dynasties. The kings of the Twelfth Dynasty restored central government. They were followed by Hyksos, the so-called Shepherd Kings.

The Hyksos were Semitic nomads who ruled Egypt from Avaris in the eastern Delta. Coalitions were formed to protect the rights of the all the people concerned. For this purpose a three level system was followed: community level, district and then province (norms). However, this system varied from time to time and era to era.

Ancient Egypt social system

The growth of agriculture and industry led to the emergence of new social order that saw the creation of two classes in the society. The upper stratum of the society was the leisure class or the Pharaoh and his courtiers, while the lower order of the society consisted of the slaves.

The early Egyptian society followed the matrilineal system because they believed in maintaining the orderly hierarchy of the Universe. The Egyptian society comprised of the peasants who worked in the estate of landholders or government officials as well as the merchants and craftsmen. Besides the peasants, there were the merchants and craftsmen. A small middle class existed by the consent of the government officialdom. Slavery originated during the Empire. Slavery was the result of owing debts to a landlord or committing of serious crime.

The position of women in the Egyptian society was unique due to the equal status they enjoyed which had no parallels. The wife enjoyed the privilege of inheriting property and led an independent life in her own rights. Disparities in legal rights were based on the social differences rather than gender. The relationship between the husband and the wife was expressed in ancient Egypt symbolically.

The husband was represented as the eye or the overseer and the wife as the throne representing legitimacy. In case of disputes, the elderly members of the family settled it. The elders of a community formed councils and collectively carried out rituals, organized works of public utility, etc.

The society in ancient Egypt was simple and then later evolved into a stratified one. This social differentiation is evident from the burial practices. While a majority of the dead bodies were placed in shallow pits, later the treatment became more elaborate. Some of the tombs were simple but some others had multiple chambers and superstructures. The difference in the goods at the grave points to the stratification in the society according to wealth.

Among the other institutions the Egyptians had an educational system totally under government supervision. The Egyptians invented a type of paper called papyrus and used the script what we know today as hieroglyphs (sacred words in Greek terms).

 Economic system of ancient Egypt

Agriculture was the foundation of the Egyptian civilization. Agriculture in the Nile Valley arose after 4000 BC. The government officials decided on the crops to be planted and supervised the work on the fields. Government engineers and scientists devised the methods for the measurement of the land. Wheat, barley, millet, onions, beans, lettuce and peas were some of the important crops that were cultivated. Clothes were prepared with cotton and flax which were cultivated by the ancient Egyptians. The agricultural implements and tools did not change much.

The market economy was based on the barter system wherein the people exchanged goods for goods. There were brokers and traders as well for the smooth functioning of the market system.

Trades and crafts were practised in ancient Egypt. Construction of massive pyramid structure required certain set of trained artisans and industries like the granite quarrying, brick-making, masonry, metal-working and such others. Cloth weaving and pottery making also emerged as a crucial trade business. That the ancient Egyptians were skilled craftsmen who had great aesthetic sense is indicated by the painted clay jars, vessels, jewels found in the tomb.

Trade even though was not as profitable as agriculture, yet it assumed importance as a source of royal revenue. Later the system of measurement in weights of gold and silver became prevalent. Items like spices, dyes were imported from India and Arabia. Negro slaves, gold and ivory were brought from Sudan.

Coins were also used but in a limited manner by the foreigners who could take it back home and buy things. The coins acted as weights and were also used as a medium of exchange. The coins were made of gold, silver, copper etc.

Religious practices were related to the belief in after life and resurrection was taken for granted. They initially did not associate afterlife with their earthly life and hence believed in magic tricks but later took to making amends in their conduct as a preparation for their afterlife. They believed that the dead led a dual life, one on earth and the other in heaven. Thus, the bodies of the deceased were mummified or images of the dead were placed in the tomb for the earthly spirit to reside. It was believed that the food, clothes, and the ornaments provided at the tomb would fulfill the need of the human desires of the earthly spirit. So deep was their belief in this process of afterlife that they made contracts for taking care of the tombs. The bodies of the dead Pharaohs have been preserved along with material goods. They bodies were mummified using treatments and chemicals, which could make them survive for so long. The scholars admit that the religion of ancient Egypt disappeared because of the different invasions and the dominance of a superior culture.

From the early Egyptian writings, it is known that the Egyptians were polytheistic and hence they believed in many gods as many as 3000. Among the deities, the most prominent ones were- Isis (Goddess of Nile and fertility), Osiris (ruler of afterlife), their son Horus (manifested in the ruling king) and Ptah (god of all life on earth). The pharaohs were themselves regarded as heavenly reincarnations and were thus considered as gods and hence many temples were built to honor the gods. The temples remained the nucleus of every community. The statues of gods and goddesses were placed in the temples where only the king and the priest were allowed to enter and worship. The belief in one God or monotheism grew in ancient Egypt with the advent of a centralized form of government. A pharaoh who was powerful could dictate the type of religion to be followed by his subjects.

At one point of time, the sun god or Ra was accepted as the most powerful of all the gods, which resulted in the destruction of other gods. Not very soon enough Ra, accepted by the priest of Heliopolis, was superseded by Amon, the Theban god. However, with the unification of Heliopolis and Thebes, the two gods were jointly worshipped as Amon Ra. Any attempt at bringing monotheism failed due to the powerful priests who were successful in overthrowing the kings who made such attempts.

What did ancient Egypt worship ?

For most Egyptians, worship took place at small local shrines. They left offerings to the chosen gods, as well as votive inscriptions with simple prayers. Private houses often had niches containing busts for ancestor worship and statues of household deities. The Egyptians strongly believed in the power of magic, dreams, and oracles, and they possessed a wide variety of amulets to ward off evil.

Afterlife of ancient Egypt

The Egyptians thought the afterlife was full of dangers, which could be overcome by magical means, among them the spells in the Book of the Dead. The goals were to join and be identified with the gods, especially Osiris, or to sail in the “boat of millions.” Originally only the king could hope to enjoy immortality with the gods, but gradually this became available to all. Since the Egyptians believed the preservation of the body was essential for continued existence in the afterlife, early on they developed mummification, a process that took seventy days by the New Kingdom. How lavishly tombs were prepared and decorated varied over the course of Egyptian history and in accordance with the wealth of a family. A high ranking Dynasty 18 official, for example, typically had a Theban rock-cut tomb of several rooms embellished with scenes from daily life and funerary texts, as well as provisions and equipment for the afterlife, statuettes of workers, and a place for descendants to leave offerings.

 What was the language of ancient egypt ?

The Egyptians developed a well defined system of writing by the Fourth Dynasty. The Rosetta Stone found during an expedition in 1799 pointed to the inscriptions written in Greek and Egyptian language. Heiroglyphic (scared writtings of the priests) of different variations were found to be used for secular reasons. In the first stage an object was represented by a written sing, in the second stage an ideogram represented a word which conveyed an idea or a concept and in the next stage, alphabetical letters were developed. A shorthand form of script writing was developed called demotic. Paper was made form the pith of the papyrus plant and ink was prepared from vegetable gum and soot.

 Ancient Egypt art and literature

The Egyptian literature was religious in nature. They consisted of praises to Gods and Pharoahs or instructions meant for the guidance of departed souls. In the tombs two groups of religious writing were found namely– “The Book of the Dead” and the “Coffin Texts”. These were written for the Pharaohs. “The Book of the Dead” was found in the tombs of the common people, the “Coffin Texts” were found in the tombs of the people of noble birth.

The secular literatures are scholastic and impersonal in nature. A few examples are– “The Song of the Harper”, “The Hymn to the Sun” etc.

Art

The pyramid design in architecture is credited to the Egyptians along with the stone block masonry. These massive constructions were built as a burial places for the Pharaohs. It served a religious purpose symbolizing the everlasting life the Pharaoh sought. The grave in the pyramid was placed at the bottom topped with vaults and arches above. Passages were constructed to allow the movement of the soul of the dead. The particular style involved placing oblong tomb with sloping sides one on top of the other to form a pyramid.

The Egyptians also built beautiful temples, among which the Karnak Temple consists of huge columns and an enormous hall. The Egyptians had an eye for beauty to which they gave prime importance and this is reflected in the houses built by them. The houses in ancient Egypt had a ground floor or one and two storey above it. In cities, sometimes the houses were five storey’s tall. The early invention of brick resulted in the use of arches and vaults in the architectural style of the ancient Egyptians. The roofs of the houses were vaulted. The ceilings were made of stucco and painted tastefully with proper arrangements and design.

There was no marked difference between architecture, sculpture and painting in ancient Egypt. The most famous “Geese Meidum” painting which decorated the tomb belonged to the 3rd dynasty. Priestly art predominated until the time of Queen Hatshepshut. A painting adorns one of her temples, which shows three ships with sails outstretched to the wind and with rowers pulling at the oars.

As for the sculptures of Egypt, the artisans were driven by two ideals- permanence and realism. The colossal statue of the Pharaohs often overshadowed the buildings and architectures. Measuring 80 to 90 ft high, the statues were cut from a single block of stone and weighed in many tons. The figures had block like forms thus giving a rigid effect. The seated and the standing figures were supported by a large stone placed behind the head, while the hips, shoulders, legs were placed in a parallel horizontal position.

Carving out the details in the features was given priority than the shaping of the body of the figure. Some interesting sculptural works have combined animal and human forms, like the example of the Sphinx. The Sphinx is an important piece of work, where the body is that of a lion while the head is of human. It stands as a symbol of mystery near the Pyramids of Giza. Relief sculptures were also commonly used for elaborating pictorial narratives carved in the facades of the temples and walls of the tombs. The figures lacked perspective leading to confusion as it produced a very unusual effect.

The Decline of Ancient Egypt.