From the August 2008 problem of Automobile and Driver.

All of us who’ve explored the envelope of a high-performance automobile know the way a lot confidence comes from a terrific braking system. However what precisely makes a brake system nice?

Brake really feel is necessary to a demanding driver. A automobile that slows in a style that’s carefully associated to how arduous and the way far the driving force is urgent the brake Pedal permits the driving force to manage braking with nice precision. Though braking techniques have turn out to be extra linear and predictable over time, there are nonetheless noticeable variations amongst automobiles in brake really feel.

One other key issue is a brief stopping distance—the size of street wanted to decelerate the automobile. That’s why we measure 70-mph-to-zero efficiency on all autos we check. However each automobile has Brakes robust sufficient for the anti-lock system to carry its tires on the verge of lockup for at the very least one cease. So when a car’s brakes are chilly, the stopping distance is extra depending on the traction of the tires than the facility of the brakes.

That leaves fade resistance as the most important differentiator amongst fashionable braking techniques, and so it’s the main target of this check. And though nearly each car has one good cease in it, solely the very best autos can keep their braking efficiency throughout sizzling laps on a racetrack or down your favourite mountain street. A pedal that goes mushy after the fifth hairpin bend will terrify even probably the most skilled driver.

Brake fade occurs when the system turns into so overheated that the brakes can not sluggish the automobile effectively. The driving force feels fade on the brake pedal, which have to be pushed farther and tougher to realize the identical deceleration as when the brakes have been cool. If the fade worsens, even urgent the pedal with each muscle in your physique wouldn’t produce a tough cease.

Braking techniques work by reworking a automobile’s movement into warmth. When a driver steps on a brake pedal, the kinetic power of the shifting automobile is become friction between the brake pads and rotors (at 60 mph, there’s sufficient power in a 3500-pound automobile to maintain a 100-watt bulb lit for an hour and a half).

Though all of the brake parts on the wheels—calipers, pads, rotors—get toasty, many of the warmth leads to the rotors. The rotors then dissipate the warmth to the environment by convection cooling (vents within the rotors assist the cooling course of). But it surely takes time for the brakes to chill, and for those who preserve working them arduous, they have an inclination to get steadily hotter. In the event that they get sizzling sufficient, the pads exceed their most working temperature, inflicting them to lose friction towards the rotors. To beat this lack of friction, the driving force should press tougher on the pedal. And if the calipers get scorchingly sizzling, the brake fluid begins to boil, which introduces vapor bubbles into the hydraulic circuit. When this occurs, the brake pedal fails, collapsing to the ground as a result of the pedal stress is solely compressing the bubbles as an alternative of compressing the pads towards the rotors.

To learn the way completely different brakes examine of their skill to endure repeated stops, we determined to measure the brake fade of 11 autos, starting from heavy SUVs to sports activities automobiles. We break up the autos into three classes: mainstream sedans, luxurious SUVs, and efficiency automobiles. In every class, we selected consultant automobiles from automakers primarily based in Germany, Japan, and the U.S. to see if regional design philosophies have an effect on brake-fade resistance. For instance, do automobiles from Germany, the place high-speed autobahn driving is a given, actually have extra highly effective brakes?

The mainstream sedans have been four-cylinder variations of the Chevrolet Malibu, the Honda Accord, and the Volkswagen Passat. The SUVs consisted of the Cadillac SRX, the Infiniti FX50S, and the Porsche Cayenne S. For the efficiency automobiles, we went with the BMW 335i, the Chevy Corvette Z51, the Nissan NISMO Z—a 350Z fortified with the NISMO sport package deal—and two Porsche 911 Carrera S fashions, one fitted with Porsche Ceramic Composite Brakes (PCCB). These brakes use lighter ceramic rotors as an alternative of the conventional forged iron and value about 10 grand further.

On a regular basis driving doesn’t end in brake fade, so we needed to devise a extreme check to create some. We employed a sequence of five-stop cycles. Every cease was from 100 mph, and the primary one consisted of making use of the brakes arduous sufficient to sluggish the automobile at a 0.50-g charge (roughly half of most braking energy). We used our Racelogic VBOX III GPS-based knowledge logger to confirm that we have been stopping on the 0.50-g charge. Throughout the 0.50-g stops, we employed a Futek sensor to measure brake-pedal power and a string potentiometer to measure pedal journey. Subsequent, we accelerated to 100 mph once more and carried out a panic cease by pounding the brake pedal arduous sufficient to interact the anti-lock system. We repeated the panic cease three extra occasions for a complete of 4 to totally work the brakes. These 5 stops accomplished one check cycle, and we repeated this cycle till we decided—by a rise in pedal power, pedal journey, or stopping distance—that the brakes have been displaying extreme fade.

A essential element of the check was the period of time allotted between every cease to permit the brakes to chill and get better. We wished to maintain that point section constant for all autos—about 90 seconds (together with acceleration time)—however discovered that hole was too straightforward on the efficiency automobiles. For that class, we diminished the time between stops to twenty seconds.

After two days of testing at Chrysler’s Whitman, Arizona, check observe, we had carried out greater than 300 stops, obtained one very sore proper foot, and gathered sufficient knowledge to clog a supercomputer. Regardless of our efforts, the brakes on all of the autos recovered after being given time to chill.

Right here’s what we discovered.

Mainstream Sedans

Amongst these three automobiles, the Passat was the clear victor. After 5 check cycles—25 stops—the Passat’s pedal remained comparatively constant, with a rise in journey of only a half-inch. Amazingly, the twenty fifth cease from 100 mph—a full panic cease—required 375 ft, 12 ft higher than the primary panic cease.

The Accord carried out its first panic cease in 370 ft. The brakes hung in for some time, however the ninth panic cease had stretched to 460 ft. The pedal journey additionally grew dramatically over the course of the check, growing till the pedal almost kissed the hearth wall on the twelfth panic cease.

The Malibu’s pedal journey additionally grew because the check went on, however the braking distances remained extra constant than the Accord’s. The tenth panic cease was inside 9 ft of the primary (374 versus 365). The following 5 stretched to between 405 and 469 ft, after which, inexplicably, the brakes recovered, and the final cease required solely 387 ft.

One fascinating statement: The fade was made evident extra by elevated pedal journey than by rising pedal power. The Passat was the least affected, adopted by the Malibu and Accord, through which pedal power nearly doubled. Nonetheless, these on a regular basis automobiles illustrate how sturdy fashionable braking techniques are. All three sedans survived an obligation cycle much more brutal than we might administer in the actual world, and there was loads of warning earlier than issues went awry.

Luxurious SUVs

The quantity of warmth that brakes should dissipate is instantly associated to a car’s weight, thus the brakes fitted to those heavyweight steeds face a troublesome mission. The FX50S was the lightest at 4643 kilos, the SRX got here subsequent at 4762 kilos, and the Cayenne S was the heavyweight, posting a brake-killing 5476 kilos.

The Porsche’s brakes, nonetheless, shrugged off the two.75 tons with little impact. After 25 stops, we merely gave up as a result of the pedal really feel modified little (it grew simply an inch), and the final cease, at 356 ft, was solely 20 ft longer than the primary. Clearly, the 90 seconds of cool-off time between runs was sufficient to maintain the Cayenne’s brakes from overheating.

The SRX acquitted itself pretty properly, contemplating it’s not as efficiency oriented as the 2 different SUVs. Though the distances for the primary 9 panic stops have been affordable, ranging between 367 and 430 ft, issues went downhill from there. After the fifteenth panic cease, the space elevated to 485 ft and the pedal misplaced its firmness, so we parked the car.

The FX50S fared even worse. Not solely did its brakes surrender a lot before these of the 2 different SUVs, they did so with little warning. Issues have been high quality after the primary six panic stops, with distances hovering round 340 ft. On the seventh cease (within the second check cycle), the pedal journey grew markedly longer and the space elevated to 432 ft. On the eighth, the pedal went to the steel. We held it there, and the Infiniti step by step got here to a cease in 473 ft. We tried a number of extra occasions, however the automobile was braking with solely half its most functionality although we have been pushing on the pedal with greater than 100 kilos of power. Afterward, we found that the rotors have been deeply grooved, too. We contacted Infiniti, and the corporate says it’s investigating the issue.

Efficiency Automobiles

Not surprisingly, the Corvette and the 2 Porsche 911s carried out very properly on this check. We grew weary attempting to the get their brakes to fade. All three automobiles survived greater than 35 back-to-back stops from 100 mph with out a lower in efficiency. That feat is much more wonderful when one considers the comparatively transient 20-second interval between stops.

The 911 with the PCCB system carried out about the identical as the opposite 911 and the Vette. The typical stopping distances of the 2 911s have been inside a foot of one another (305 ft), not stunning since each automobiles have been carrying the identical tires. The Corvette averaged 326 ft. The conclusion: PCCB patrons take pleasure in a 37-pound weight financial savings however not essentially extra sturdy brakes.

The NISMO Z comes with a set of huge Brembo brakes, however we didn’t discover these binders to be as much as par with these of the opposite efficiency automobiles. As with the FX50S, we noticed an enormous change within the NISMO Z’s brake efficiency. The fifteenth panic cease was roughly the identical as the primary, with constant stopping distances within the 320-foot vary and fewer than an inch of elevated pedal journey. However on cease 16, the pedal bottomed out, the space elevated 38 % (to 448 ft), and it simply obtained worse thereafter. This sudden enhance in pedal journey means that the brake fluid was merely getting too sizzling, so we suspect {that a} change to higher-temp fluid would drastically enhance braking efficiency.

The BMW 335i isn’t as overtly sporting because the others, nevertheless it has a singular system known as brake-fade compensation that mechanically will increase hydraulic stress because the brakes get sizzling. The BMW’s brakes did very properly; we carried out seven full check cycles till a brake-warning mild flashed, encouraging us to give up. Over that point, the pedal journey elevated by 1.8 inches, and the power required to do these 0.50-g stops elevated by about 30 %. Sadly, we couldn’t quantify the advantage of the brake-fade compensation as a result of we couldn’t flip off the system.

About That Mud

The contact between the brake pads and rotors is analogous to rubbing sandpaper towards wooden: In consequence, there’s mud. The dusty, black residue gathers on wheels, a lot to the annoyance of fastidious automobile house owners. Brake mud has turn out to be a sizzling subject amongst carmakers since J.D. Energy and Associates, the corporate that surveys automobile house owners and publishes the influential Preliminary High quality Research (IQS), started asking whether or not automobiles produce extreme brake mud. A “sure” reply provides to the tally of issues audited within the IQS ranking.

The quantity of mud produced—and the chance that it’ll find yourself dirtying the wheels—will depend on many variables, together with the chemical composition of the brake pads, the actual alloy of the rotors, the airflow across the brakes, and even the wheel design itself.

The attributes that make a braking system immune to fade are additionally sometimes the identical traits that produce extra mud on the wheels. For instance, strong disklike wheels would preserve mud from accumulating on the skin of the wheel, however these wheels would limit airflow. Pads that retain their frictional traits when temperatures rise to greater than 1000 levels produce extra mud throughout regular driving than pads that fade severely when sizzling.

Some corporations—Porsche for one—really feel the IQS survey unfairly penalizes producers of high-performance brakes. Donatus Neudeck, Porsche’s growth supervisor for brake techniques, says: “Our automobiles can go from the road to the racetrack with out hesitation. We may change the pad materials to assist the mud downside, however we might by no means do this. We could have extra mud on the wheel, however we offer our prospects with higher braking efficiency.”

Till somebody invents a magic pad that survives excessive temperatures however produces much less mud, fanatics could should depend on a easy answer: a backyard hose and a brush—as soon as the brakes have cooled down, in fact.