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Staff Development within an Educational Establishment


Staff Development refers to the updating the knowledge and attitudes of the staff with the end in view of improving their skills and performance to achieve organizational objectives. Staff development plays a significant function in the educational establishment as it maximizes the expertise of the teachers and staff.  Swanson (1994) defined expertise as “the optimal level in which a person is able and is expected to perform within the specialized realm of human activity.” Thus, development of workplace expertise through staff development has been significant to optimal performance of teachers.

In the perspective of business, a properly trained work-forced at all levels is important in any organization for its continued success and survival so that it can meet the challenge of change be it economic, technological, social, political, legal or ethical. Similarly, educational institutions are developing its staff for the same reason.

Therefore, staff development programs in schools should be stressing on definite objectives to achieve which harmonize with accepted psychologies and philosophies of education. It is important that school faculty members should try new ideas in teaching from training to the actual teaching sessions.

The major goal of staff development is to provide the best objectives, learning opportunities, and evaluation procedures for students. Assessing needs of teachers to improve the curriculum is a must. Inservice education programs may then be built sequentially on teaching skills presently possessed by teachers individually. Quality sequence is vital when moving from what is to what should be in the teacher's repertoire.
The length of time for staff development, meals, participation, recognition, and personal needs of teachers must be met. Meeting each need of teachers in staff development programs might well stress increased optimal achievement for participants. Teachers desire to be recognized for excellence in teaching emphasized in ongoing lessons and units. Being accepted as true professionals assists teachers to increasingly become the quality of person desired.
Significantly, staff development is needed in any organization as well as in the educational institutions in order to improve the job performance skills of the staff or groups of staff; improve the teacher’s individual job performance skills; to extend the experience of an individual teacher for career development or promotion purposes; to develop the professional knowledge and understanding of an individual teacher; to extend the personal or general education of an individual; to make staff feel valued; to promote job satisfaction; to develop an enhanced view of the job; to enable teachers to anticipate and prepare for change; and to clarify the whole school or department's policy







Ultimately, all teacher development will have as one of its aims the improvement of pupil learning. Additionally, Blandford (2000) emphasizes that Professional Development may enable practitioners to widen their understanding of society.

If schools are about promoting the learning of pupils in a changing world and learning is worthwhile and not a static or bounded process, then the learning of education professionals throughout their careers is essential (Hopkins, Ainscow and West, 1994; Southworth, 1994; Sammons, Hillman and Mortimore, 1995; Green, 1999). The linking of teachers' development to the raising of pupils' standards of achievement is central to policy in staff development programs for teachers.

The process of staff development provides a way of moving from identifying needs to setting up a series of actions which aim to do something about fulfilling them. Staff development is defined as the full range of planned activities and experiences which contribute to maintaining and developing professional expertise. Staff development was seen to be vital for ensuring the quality of learning and teaching in schools; it provided a means of continuing the development of teachers as members of a profession operating in a changing educational world.

Staff development is way to identify the professional development needs and reconciling the tensions between the individual and school priorities. It is seen as a process of review and about improvement and performance enhancement through performance management.

Staff development is a way of serving the needs of the school, department team or an individual and of individual professional development needs as varying in terms of how far they relate to school department or team priorities. It has been argued that 'teacher development and school development must go hand in hand. Generally, according to Watson and Fullan (1992) “you cannot have one without the other.” It has also been suggested by Fullan that, whereas in the past there has often been a preoccupation with helping both individuals and schools handle individual changes, “there is now an increasing need to deal with changes that affect the culture and structure of schools, restructuring roles and reorganizing responsibilities, including those of students and parents” (Fullan, 1982).

Areas of Staff Development
Motivation
Motivating can be defined as getting people to contribute their maximum effort toward the attainment of organizational objectives. Additionally, it is the creation of working conditions that will help arouse the desire of the staff to achieve these objectives. According to Hoy and Miskel (1991), “motivation is consists of complex forces that start and maintain voluntary activity that is undertaken to achieve personal goals.”
There are various theories explaining the concept of motivation. According to the theory of Maslow (1954), every person has wants that are needed to be satisfied. Maslow postulates the five hierarchy of needs which includes physiological needs, security needs, social needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization in which he acclaimed that once the low level needs are satisfied it ceases to be the motivator of man and move to the next level of needs (Maslow, 1954).
Another theory formulated by Herzberg (1959), is the two-factor theory in motivation in which identified two factors that would explain motivation. Thes consist of hygiene factors (salary, supervision, status, job security, working conditions, company policy and interpersonal relations) which remove the possible cause of dissatisfaction and the motivators (job content, recognition, advancement, the possibility of growth, responsibility and achievement).
These theories of motivation can give instances and areas of emphasis in developing the staff. Thus, each of the faculty members should go into the process of staff development to improve the school curriculum.
Staff development is one that is emphasized by motivation. With the proper training and with the confidence of the staff on their capabilities, the staff is more motivated to do their job and to improve their performance. It is also necessary for the teachers have the quality learning environment. With staff development, teachers are able to teach the students learn, develop and achieve.
Staff Development through Training
Training may be defined as a carefully planned and handheld effort of management to impart know-how and develop or improve certain phases of an individual’s skills, attitudes, discipline, behavior, or knowledge to make him either more effective on his present job or better qualified for another job. Training programs is done for various reasons but most of these reasons are based on to developing the performance of the person to his job.
Teacher training is a professional preparation of teachers, usually through formal course work and practice teaching. Although the concept of teaching as a profession is fairly new, most teachers in industrialized nations today are college or university educated. The amount of preparatory training, however, varies greatly worldwide.
Certification requirements for teaching have advanced with educational opportunity, although they vary widely from country to country. The trend in certification has been toward requiring more complete training, with practice teaching and extensive graduate work for specialized positions. In many countries extension or summer graduate work is required of teachers or is made a prerequisite for advancement. A number of graduate professional degrees are now offered, including the Master of Arts in Teaching and the Doctor of Education. While the professional requirements for teaching in the United States have in the past stressed method and psychology, increasing emphasis is now being placed on subject-matter specialization; European countries have generally stressed scholarship.
Improvements in teacher training led to demands for professional recognition and benefits. These resulted in the formation of several international organizations as well as local and national teachers' unions. The success of teacher training for elementary and secondary education has led some college administrations to consider requiring such training for college teaching also.
Teachers are required to be competent in practice having mastered a body of knowledge. Staff development practices are regarded as an essential component in maintaining and advancing individual personal and professional abilities (Friedman and Phillips, 2001).
It is well established that the continuing staff development for teachers is regarded as essential in creating effective educational organizations and in raising the standards of learner achievement (Kydd et al., 1997; O'Brien and MacBeath, 1999; Moon, 2000). Staff development has been associated with improving classroom performance, engaging with opportunities created by change initiatives, preparing teachers for specialist roles within the organization, preparing teachers for roles in management and leadership, and enabling the sharing of good practices through networking arrangements.
Staff development has been defined in Learning and Teaching: A Strategy for Professional Development(DfES, 2001a) as: 'any activity that increases the skills, knowledge or understanding of teachers, and their effectiveness in schools.'
To be able to effectively establish a staff development program, the educational establishment of a climate in which open networking between colleagues enables mutual support and reflection to take place has been shown to be an important element in the effective management of school staff development cultures (Law and Glover, 1996).
However, not all schools benefit from the presence of such a climate (Law, 1999). In educational organizations, leadership and management teams should consider whether staff collaboration is facilitated or hindered by the professional development culture they have created. For example, Williams et al. (2001) point out that support and development accorded to newly qualified teachers is of a much higher order in schools where the culture is one of collaboration when compared to schools with cultures denoted by individualism. Organizational leadership and management exercises significant influence on teacher development.

Staff Development through Performance Management
The performance management framework (DfEE, 2000a, b) leads teachers to expect a focus upon the improvement of their knowledge and skills, and also offers financial reward for those who are deemed to be performing well. Performance management may be viewed as an important element in raising professional standards or as an element of governmental intervention to exact greater efficiency, effectiveness and accountability (Down et al., 1999; Gleeson and Husbands, 2001).In essence, performance management is meant to identify teacher strengths and weaknesses with respect to addressing performance targets set so that development needs are identified and recognized.
Leaders, whether in schools or colleges, can influence the culture and purpose of their organizations and, as such, they are able to create an environment which can influence job-related attitudes. Evans (2001) suggests that leadership can shape work contexts that either match or are at odds with what individuals want in relation to equity and justice, organizational efficiency, interpersonal relations, collegiality and self-conception and self-image.
School and college leaders can make significant interventions to enhance the working lives of teachers. They can influence the emotional climate of their organizations and, in so doing, motivate staff and impact positively upon teachers' working lives. In view of the extensive methodology available to access cultural information within organizations (Locatelli and West, 1996; Higgins-D'Alessandro and Sadh, 1997; Cartwright et al., 1999), school and college leadership training should perhaps include stronger emphasis on cultural change methodology aimed at improving teacher professional experience, satisfaction and increasing the likelihood of retention.

Appraisal
Appraisal provides opportunities for staff development that is, reflection, paired observation and feedback, collaboration involving the exchange of ideas and mutual support. Appraisal can also be a precise way of identifying professional development needs of teachers. It can also be a means of reconciling school and individual development needs within financial constraints by logging and making explicit differences and the reasons for them. It can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of staff development ptograms. Appraisal puts development on the agendaof all teachers on a regular basis.
Appraisal is not simply about identifying individual development needs of teachers. The basic purpose of the review and development model of appraisal is to help teachers identify priorities or targets for future action. A necessary follow-on then is how to give teachers the support they need in order to achieve their targets. Such support may or may not include professional development. Whether or not the targets of an individual teacher include professional development support, the process of appraisal can be a valuable development opportunity in its own right.
Experience of working on appraisal both in the pilot study and since, summarized by Bollington et al.(1990), demonstrates that appraisal should not become an end in itself. Rather it is a means to an end in that it provides an opportunity for detailed discussion and reflection on individual and school priorities. There is not much point in becoming good at appraisal for its own sake; the key is to use appraisal to provide support for development in the areas of curriculum, management, teaching and learning. Using the process to look at a manageable number of priority areas is likely to be more satisfactory than using it to carry out a general yet superficial review of all aspects of someone's work.
Appraisal has the potential for helping individuals' effectiveness, skills and motivation. On the other, it has the potential for enabling a school to make better use of people, to develop and grow, and to ensure that individuals perceive their jobs and roles in the context of the needs of the whole. The following are the some of the benefits of performance appraisal.




1. Motivate credit staff to improve job performance. Enhance the impact of coaching and mentoring efforts that are already taking place between employees and their managers
2. Establish a reasonably uniform set of performance standards that are consistent with company values. Confirm that employees possess the skills or attributes needed to successfully fulfill particular jobs
3. Resolve difficulties in the supervisor-employeerelationship. Keep staff focused on business goals and objectives
4. Help assess training and staff development needs. Motivate employees to upgrade their skills and job knowledge so they can make more meaningful contributions to the department
5. Provide an objective and legally defensible basis for key human resources decisions, including merit pay increases, promotions and terminations
Staff Development through Coaching and Mentoring
Given a growing interest in coaching and mentoring as means to enhance development of the teachers, the challenge associated with the successful management of these mechanisms emerges. Despite a rareness of teacher collaboration in many organizations (Harris, 2001), the encouragement of close partnerships between colleagues may help reduce or overcome any non-collaborative balkanization (Beatty, 2000) and yield the following benefits:
Ø  The encouragement of collaboration may also be viewed as a tool of teacher empowerment. For example, Lieberman and Miller (2000) have suggested that teachers may well experience enhanced confidence and self-esteem through the mutual support offered by other colleagues.
Ø  The engagement of support using coaching, mentoring and networking activities may assist in the transfer of teacher learning to pupil or student learning, resulting in greater impact within the classroom and the increased potential to raise standards and attainment (Joyce and Showers, 1988; Oldroyd and Hall, 1988; Wallace, 1996; Swafford, 1998; Rhodes and Houghton-Hill, 2000).
Ø  The locus of control of professional development may change beneficially, allowing teachers greater ownership of professional development and its potential impact, rather than professional development and change being seen as an imposition by others (Whitmore, 1995; Beatty, 2000; Downey, 2001).
Ø  Enhanced individual, team and organisational performance may emerge by sharing and developing practice within an atmosphere of mutual trust and respect (DfES, 2001a, b, c, d).

Coaching
Coaching represents a peer-networking interaction (working together) which draws upon collaboration and mutual trust. It is usually a short-term relationship which can be used to help embed change, raise performance, raise impact and assist in skill development. Good coaches will be active with the establishment of learners' needs, be sensitive to preferred learning styles and will ensure that the learner is able to engage in learning.

Mentoring
Mentoring represents a peer-networking interaction which draws upon collaboration and mutual trust. It is usually a longer term relationship which can be used to support individuals or groups to embed change, improve performance, raise impact and assist in personal and professional development. Mentoring may be used to support individuals through a combination of coaching and counseling from induction through to extended professional relationships. While coaching is an enabling and helping process, mentoring is essentially a supportive process.
Barriers and Ways to overcome them
Coaching and mentoring are an effective means of developing the teachers however there are barriers identified in the implementation of such collaboration. Implementation of such mechanisms and the creation of an environment in which mutual support can flourish may present challenges within some organizations.
For example, West-Burnham and O'Sullivan (1998) highlight the need for high-quality personal and interpersonal skills, mutual trust, confidence and respect within successful coaching relationships.

However, it is known that collaboration between individuals so they can work and learn together is not prevalent in many organizations (Harris, 2001). Close partnership and collaboration between colleagues is an important factor in enabling coaching and mentoring to flourish. In organizations where collaboration and trust between individuals is weak or not established, approaches to professional development which embrace these mechanisms have implications for leadership and management teams in those organizations.

Clement and Vandenberghe (2001) have established the importance of collegial interactions between staff and particularly the role of school leaders in creating workplace conditions which allow learning opportunities and learning space for teachers, and so influence positively the professional development experience of teachers. Other important leadership and management issues relate to the acquisition and use of information and training, the careful selection of individuals as coaches and mentors, engaging staff commitment to a management style that incorporates coaching, mentoring and peer-networking, the use of accurate needs analysis and time constraints.

Teacher collaboration
The potential benefits of coaching, mentoring and peer-networking activities within organizations stem from the requirement for close partnership between colleagues within an environment of trust, safety, support and mutual respect (Ponzio, 1987; Tharp and Gallimore, 1988; West-Burnham and O'Sullivan, 1998; Harris, 2000, 2001; Thompson, 2001). In organizations where the professional development culture already includes strong teacher collaboration, the adoption of coaching, mentoring and peer-networking should present fewer problems for staff. However, in many organizations it is known that teacher collaboration is not prevalent (Harris, 2001) and leadership and management intervention may be necessary to enable mutual teacher support to flourish.

Information and training
The rareness of information currently available in the implementation of desirable working standards and the skill and training requirements of staff responsible for helping colleagues learn needs to be addressed if the potential benefits of these mechanisms are to be realized. Nationally or internationally agreed guidance concerning good practices in coaching and mentoring in schools and colleges would be of use to teachers, leadership and management teams, trainers and others concerned with the raising of standards and attainment in schools and colleges.

Selection of individuals
The selection of coaches and mentors demands that individuals are sought who possess personal and professional qualities of the highest order (West-Burnham and O'Sullivan, 1998). For example, insensitive and judgmental feedback regarding performance can damage learning relationships and encourage teachers to have negative views of their own abilities (Watkins and Whalley, 2000). In offering feedback, coaches and mentors would ideally have the potential to surpass the instrumental level of mechanistic direction for colleagues and would ideally foster opportunities to reflect deeply on practice.
Thompson (2001) has suggested that coaching without reflection will not enable learning to take place, and West-Burnham and O'Sullivan (1998) point out that both coaching and reflection are required in order to produce a consolidated and internalized learning experience. Coaches and mentors are responsible for assisting the learning of colleagues who are adults, and with this goes the requirement to choose and train individuals who can sustain skills in enabling adults to learn. For example, Collarbone (2000) has identified that coaching requires the recognition that adults learn for specific purposes and that they must be motivated to want to learn.
Discussing the mentoring of adults, Daloz (1998) identifies potential problems which may damage intended learning relationships between colleagues. It is suggested that problems could stem from differing ethics, possible misuse of power or excessive control, or from exaggerated emotional dependence by either party.

Engaging staff commitment
Approaches to professional development which ignore the issue of who is in control of the development are missing a vital component. Higgins and Leat (1997) point out that it is important to recognize that people are less likely to be receptive or positive with regard to professional development initiatives if they think they are being manipulated. Leadership and management teams need to consider how they will convince staff of the potential benefits of a management style which involves coaching, mentoring and peer-networking. For example, if the work of the coach or mentor becomes equated with only supervision due to weakness, staff may perceive an over-managerial element rather than a true collaborative drive to support the learning of all teachers.


Needs analysis
In engaging coaching, mentoring or networking activities to support professional learning and teacher performance, leadership and management teams will need to carefully identify specific teacher learning needs in order to raise standards and attainment within their organizations. An accurate diagnosis of the causes of poor performance would enable better targeting of support and thus provide a more effective and efficient remediation to take place.

This is illustrated by the work of Wragg (2000), who found that where poorly performing teachers did improve their performance, it was often because they had been given in-house support and a fellow teacher as mentor, which in turn had made an impact on their classroom teaching. Importantly, head teachers who had successfully pursued such a support strategy were able to make precise judgments about the nature of help needed.

Time constraints
Given severe time constraints in schools due to teacher workload (Rhodes and Houghton-Hill, 2000; Thompson, 2001; GTC, 2002), leadership and management teams should consider how sufficient time may be created to allow the coach or mentor to undertake their role. This may be particularly problematic in schools where all staff are engaged in full-time class contact. It is reasonable to assume that staff in some schools and colleges may be reluctant to take on the additional responsibilities inherent in coaching and mentoring.
Leadership and management teams may wish to consider the use of a consultant to undertake a coaching or mentoring role. Each educational organization has a unique context and an individual improvement journey to follow. Those organizations choosing to adopt coaching and mentoring mechanisms need to consider their position with respect to developing true collegiality. For example, some organizations may seek to develop towards a professional learning community (Thompson, 2001), whereas others may adopt a more limited vision and employ these mechanisms strategically as quick fixes for immediate performance difficulties.

Given that organizations spend significant sums of money on professional development with the intention of raising teacher performance (Rhodes and Houghton-Hill, 2000; Rhodes, 2001), organizations actively seeking the potential benefits of coaching, mentoring and peer-networking relationships will also need to consider the placement of these mechanisms as part of normal working patterns in order to engender a climate of safety and trust.


Teacher Retention
The linkage between individual development and teacher retention has received much recent attention. Dean (2001) suggests that premature loss of experienced teachers may be curtailed or prevented through staff development activities such as sabbaticals which would allow for personal refreshment.
An Ofsted (2003) evaluation of the quality and effectiveness of early professional development undertaken by teachers suggested that in about half of the schools in the survey (n = 61) teachers felt that development activities had strengthened their commitment to a career in teaching. Rowe and Sykes (1989) have found the potential for strong positive effects of individual development on teachers' professional self-perceptions, energy, enthusiasm and satisfaction.
Beatty (2000) has shown that self-directed professional learning, personal and shared reflection, and authentic collaboration in a supportive study group environment can create changes in teachers' perceptions of themselves and their work and catalyze professional growth. A report by Day et al. (2002) has suggested that provision of opportunities for teachers to reflect on their teaching and engage in dialogue about it with other teachers can help to build motivation and commitment.
Given that teacher collaboration and mutual support offer the potential to raise teacher confidence and facilitate teacher professional learning (Rhodes and Beneicke, 2002), school and college leadership teams need to consider how productive collaboration can be engendered within the context of their own organizations, how they might remove obstacles to sharing and how they may offer support as well as challenge. Emphasizing the importance of school leadership with respect to the outcomes experienced by teachers engaging in professional development, Earley et al. (2002) have recommended that a key component of leadership programs should include managing professional development for others as well as inclusion of theoretical frameworks which underpin professional learning.
Conclusion
In summary, staffdevelopment should stress meaning, purpose, high morale, provision for individual differences, interest, quality attitudes, goal attainment, acceptance, and respect for others, problem solving skills, and self-concept developmentby participants. Thus, a positive environment must emphasize heavy teacher input when staff development programs are being considered. The concerns of teachers then are vital to consider.













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